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使用者:ErwinTATP/ProjectPoland/滅絕營

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Nazi extermination camps
Death Gate at Auschwitz II Birkenau


The Holocaust map: Nazi extermination camps, marked with white skulls in black squares, set up by the SS in Germany and occupied Poland, 1942
地點German-occupied Europe
日期World War II
事件類型Extermination
實施者SS, Trawnikis（英語：Trawnikis）, Ustaše
參與組織SS-Totenkopfverbände
集中營Chełmno, Bełżec, Sobibór, Treblinka, Auschwitz, Majdanek, Trostenets

Nazi Germany built extermination camps (also called death camps or killing centers) during the Holocaust in World War II, to systematically kill millions of Jews, Slavs, Roma, Soviet POWs, political opponents and others whom the Nazis considered "Untermenschen" ("subhumans"). The victims of death camps were killed primarily by gassing, either in permanent installations constructed for this specific purpose, or by means of gas van（英語：gas van）s.[1] Some Nazi camps before the end of war in 1945, such as Auschwitz and Majdanek, served a dual purpose: extermination by poison gas, but also through extreme work under starvation conditions（英語：Extermination through labour）.[1][2]

The idea of mass extermination with the use of stationary facilities to which the victims were taken by train, was a result of earlier Nazi experimentation with the chemically manufactured poison gas during the secretive Action T4 euthanasia programme against hospital patients with mental and physical disabilities.[3][a] The technology was adapted, expanded, and applied in wartime to unsuspecting victims of many ethnic and national groups; the Jews however were the primary targets, accounting for over 90 percent of the extermination camp death toll.[9] This genocide of the Jewish people of Europe was the Third Reich's "Final Solution to the Jewish question（英語：Jewish question）".[10] It is now collectively known as the Holocaust.[1][11]

Extermination camps were also set up by the fascist Ustaše regime of the Independent State of Croatia, a puppet state of Germany, carrying out genocide between 1941 and 1945 against Serbs, Jews, Roma and its Croat and Bosniak Muslim political opponents.[12]

背景

1
2
3
1
Crematorium I
2
Crematorium II
3
Crematorium III
U.S. aerial photograph of Auschwitz II Birkenau with location of crematoria (to the right of red mark)
參見：Nisko Plan

After the invasion of Poland in September 1939, the secret Action T4 euthanasia（英語：involuntary euthanasia） programme – the systematic murder of German, Austrian, and Polish hospital patients with mental or physical disabilities – was initiated by the SS in order to eliminate "life unworthy of life" (德語：Lebensunwertes Leben), a Nazi designation for people who had no right to life.[13][14] In 1941, the experience gained in the secretive killing of these hospital patients led to the creation of extermination camps for the implementation of the Final Solution. By then, the Jews were already confined to new ghettos（英語：Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland） and interned in Nazi concentration camps along with other targeted groups, including Roma, and the Soviet POWs. The Nazi Endlösung der Judenfrage (The Final Solution of the Jewish Question), based on the systematic killing of Europe's Jews by gassing, began during Operation Reinhard,[15] after the onset of the Nazi-Soviet war of June 1941. The adoption of the gassing technology by Nazi Germany was preceded by a wave of hands-on killings carried out by the SS Einsatzgruppen,[16] who followed the Wehrmacht army during Operation Barbarossa on the Eastern Front.[17]

The camps designed specifically for the mass gassings of Jews were established in the months following the Wannsee Conference chaired by Reinhard Heydrich in January 1942 in which the principle was made clear that the Jews of Europe were to be exterminated. Responsibility for the logistics were to be executed by the programme administrator, Adolf Eichmann.[18]

On 13 October 1941, the SS and Police Leader（英語：SS and Police Leader） Odilo Globocnik（英語：Odilo Globocnik） stationing in Lublin（英語：Lublin reservation） received an oral order from Reichsführer-SS Heinrich Himmler – anticipating the fall of Moscow – to start immediate construction work on the killing centre at Bełżec in the General Government territory of occupied Poland. Notably, the order preceded the Wannsee Conference by three months,[19] but the gassings at Kulmhof north of Łódź using gas van（英語：gas van）s began already in December, under Sturmbannführer Herbert Lange（英語：Herbert Lange）.[20] The camp at Bełżec was operational by March 1942, with leadership brought in from Germany under the guise of Organisation Todt（英語：Organisation Todt） (OT).[19] By mid-1942, two more death camps had been built on Polish lands for Operation Reinhard: Sobibór (ready in May 1942) under the command of Hauptsturmführer Franz Stangl, and Treblinka (operational by July 1942) under Obersturmführer Irmfried Eberl（英語：Irmfried Eberl） from T4, the only doctor to have served in such a capacity.[21] Auschwitz concentration camp was fitted with brand new gassing bunkers in March 1942.[22] Majdanek had them built in September.[23]

定義

Members of the Sonderkommando（英語：Sonderkommando） burned the bodies of victims in the fire pits at Auschwitz II-Birkenau, when the crematoria were overloaded.[24]

The Nazis distinguished between extermination and concentration camps, although the terms extermination camp (Vernichtungslager) and death camp (Todeslager) were interchangeable, each referring to camps whose primary function was genocide. Todeslagers were designed specifically for the systematic killing of people delivered en masse by the Holocaust trains. The executioners did not expect the prisoners to survive more than a few hours beyond arrival at Belzec, Sobibór, and Treblinka.[25] The Reinhard extermination camps were under Globocnik's direct command; each of them was run by 20 to 35 men from the SS-Totenkopfverbände branch of the Schutzstaffel, augmented by about one hundred Trawnikis（英語：Trawnikis） – auxiliaries mostly from Soviet Ukraine, and up to one thousand Sonderkommando（英語：Sonderkommando） slave labourers each.[26] The Jewish men, women and children were delivered from the ghettos（英語：Ghettos in Nazi-occupied Europe） for "special treatment" in an atmosphere of terror by uniformed police battalions（英語：Ordnungspolizei） from both, Orpo and Schupo（英語：Schutzpolizei (Nazi Germany)）.[27]

Death camps differed from concentration camps located in Germany proper, such as Bergen-Belsen, Oranienburg, Ravensbrück, and Sachsenhausen, which were prison camps set up prior to World War II for people defined as 'undesirable'. From March 1936, all Nazi concentration camps were managed by the SS-Totenkopfverbände (the Skull Units, SS-TV), who operated extermination camps from 1941 as well.[28] An SS anatomist, Dr. Johann Kremer（英語：Johann Kremer）, after witnessing the gassing of victims at Birkenau, wrote in his diary on 2 September 1942: "Dante's Inferno（英語：Inferno (Dante)） seems to me almost a comedy compared to this. They don't call Auschwitz the camp of annihilation for nothing!"[29] The distinction was evident during the Nuremberg trials, when Dieter Wisliceny（英語：Dieter Wisliceny） (a deputy to Adolf Eichmann) was asked to name the extermination camps, and he identified Auschwitz and Majdanek as such. Then, when asked, "How do you classify the camps Mauthausen, Dachau, and Buchenwald?", he replied, "They were normal concentration camps, from the point of view of the department of Eichmann."[30]

Mass deportations: the pan-European routes to the extermination camps

Irrespective of round-ups for extermination camps, the Nazis abducted millions of foreigners for slave labour（英語：Forced labour under German rule during World War II） in other types of camps,[31] which provided perfect cover for the extermination programme.[32] Prisoners represented about a quarter of the total workforce of the Reich, with mortality rates exceeding 75 percent due to starvation, disease, exhaustion, executions, and physical brutality.[31]

歷史

主條目：The Final Solution、Nazi ghettos和Holocaust train

In the early years of World War II, the Jews were primarily sent to forced labour camps and ghettoised, but from 1942 onward they were deported to the extermination camps under the guise of "resettlement". For political and logistical reasons, the most infamous Nazi German killing factories were built in occupied Poland, where most of the intended victims lived; Poland had the greatest Jewish population in Nazi-controlled Europe.[33] On top of that, the new death camps outside the prewar borders of the Third Reich proper could be kept secret from the German civil populace.[34]

純粹的滅絕營

Jewish children during deportation to the Chełmno extermination camp

During the initial phase of the Final Solution, gas van（英語：gas van）s producing poisonous exhaust fumes were developed in the occupied Soviet Union (USSR) and at the Chełmno extermination camp in occupied Poland, before being used elsewhere. The killing method was based on experience gained by the SS during the secretive Aktion T4 programme of involuntary euthanasia. There were two types of death chambers operating during the Holocaust.[35]

Unlike at Auschwitz, where the cyanide-based Zyklon-B was used to exterminate trainloads of prisoners under the guise of "relocation", the camps at Treblinka, Bełżec, and Sobibór, built during Operation Reinhard (October 1941 – November 1943), used lethal exhaust fumes produced by large internal combustion engines. The three killing centres of Einsatz Reinhard were constructed predominantly for the extermination of Poland's Jews trapped in the Nazi ghettos（英語：Jewish ghettos in German-occupied Poland）.[36] At first, the victim's bodies were buried with the use of crawler excavators, but they were later exhumed and incinerated in open-air pyres to hide the evidence of genocide in what became known as Sonderaktion 1005（英語：Sonderaktion 1005）.[37][38]

Whereas the Auschwitz II (Auschwitz–Birkenau) and Majdanek camps were parts of a labor camp complex, the Operation Reinhard camps and the Chełmno camp were built exclusively for the quick extermination of entire communities of people (primarily Jews) within hours of their arrival. All were constructed near branch line（英語：branch line）s that linked to the Polish railway system. They had almost identical design, including staff members transferring between locations.[39][40] Selected able-bodied prisoners delivered to death camps were not immediately killed, but pressed into labor units called Sonderkommando（英語：Sonderkommando）s to help with the extermination process by removing corpses from the gas chambers and burning them. The extermination camps were physically small (only several hundred metres long and wide) and equipped with minimal housing and support installations, not meant for the railway transports. The Nazis deceived the victims upon their arrival, telling them that they were at a temporary transit stop, and soon would continue to German Arbeitslagers (work camps) farther east.[41]

集中與滅絕營

March to the gas chambers, one of Sonderkommando photographs（英語：Sonderkommando photographs） taken secretly at Auschwitz II in August 1944

At the camps of Operation Reinhard, including Bełżec, Sobibór, and Treblinka, trainloads of prisoners were destined for immediate death in gas chambers designed exclusively for that purpose.[42] The mass killing facilities were developed at about the same time inside the Auschwitz II-Birkenau subcamp of a forced labour complex（英語：Forced labour under German rule during World War II）,[43] and at the Majdanek concentration camp.[15] In most other camps prisoners were selected for slave labor first; they were kept alive on starvation rations and made available to work as required. Auschwitz, Majdanek, and Jasenovac were retrofitted with Zyklon-B gas chambers and crematoria buildings as the time went on, remaining operational until war's end in 1945.[44] The Maly Trostenets extermination camp in the USSR initially operated as a prison camp. It became an extermination camp later in the war with victims undergoing mass shootings. This was supplemented with gassings in a van by exhaust fumes from October 1943.

The Sajmište concentration camp（英語：Sajmište concentration camp） operated by the Nazis in Yugoslavia had a gas van stationed for use from March to June 1942. Once the industrial killings were completed, the van was returned to Berlin. After a refit the van was then sent to Maly Trostinets for use at the camp there. The Janowska concentration camp（英語：Janowska concentration camp） near Lwow (now Lviv) in occupied eastern Poland implemented a selection process. Some prisoners were assigned to work before death. Others were either transported to Belzec or victims of mass shootings on two slopes in the Piaski sand-hills behind the camp. The Warsaw concentration camp（英語：Warsaw concentration camp） was a camp complex of the German concentration camps, possibly including an extermination camp located in German-occupied Warsaw. The various details regarding the camp are very controversial and remain subject of historical research and public debate.[45]

其他的種族滅絕方式

Germany's Führer Adolf Hitler (left) with Ustaše Poglavnik（英語：Poglavnik） Ante Pavelić (right) at the Berghof outside Berchtesgaden, Germany

With the support of Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy, the Independent State of Croatia (NDH) was established on 10 April 1941, and adopted parallel racial and political doctrines. Death camps were established by the fascist Ustaše government for contributing to the Nazi "final solution" to the "Jewish problem", the killing of Roma people, and the elimination of political opponents, but most significantly to achieve the destruction of the Serbian population of the NDH.[46][47] The degree of cruelty with which the Serb population was persecuted by Ustaše men shocked even the Germans.[48][49]

The Jadovno concentration camp（英語：Jadovno concentration camp） was located in a secluded area about 20公里（12英里） from the town of Gospić. It held thousands of Serbs and Jews over a period of 122 days from May to August 1941. Prisoners were usually but not exclusively killed by being pushed into deep ravines located near the camp.[50]

The Jasenovac concentration camp complex of five sub-camps replaced Jadovno. Many inmates arriving at Jasenovac were scheduled for systematic extermination. An important criterion for selection was the duration of a prisoner's anticipated detention. Strong men who were capable of labour and sentenced to less than three years of incarceration were allowed to live. All inmates with indeterminate sentences or sentences of three years or more were immediately scheduled for execution, regardless of their level of fitness.[51] Some of the mass executions were mechanical according to Nazi methodology. Others were performed manually with tools such as mallets and agricultural knives and these tools were often used to throw victims off the end of a ramp into the River Sava.

處決程序

Carpathian Ruthenian Jews arrive at Auschwitz–Birkenau, May 1944. Without being registered to the camp system, most were killed in gas chambers hours after arriving (A photograph from a collection known as the Auschwitz Album（英語：Auschwitz Album）)

Heinrich Himmler visited the outskirts of Minsk in 1941 to witness a mass shooting. He was told by the commanding officer there that the shootings were proving psychologically damaging to those being asked to pull the triggers. Thus Himmler knew another method of mass killing was required.[52] After the war, the diary of the Auschwitz Commandant, Rudolf Höss, revealed that psychologically "unable to endure wading through blood any longer", many Einsatzkommando（英語：Einsatzkommando）s – the killers – either went mad or killed themselves.[53]

The Nazis had first used gassing with carbon monoxide cylinders to kill 70,000 disabled people in Germany in what they called a 'euthanasia programme' to disguise that mass murder was taking place. Despite the lethal effects of carbon monoxide, this was seen as unsuitable for use in the East due to the cost of transporting the carbon monoxide in cylinders.[52]

Each extermination camp operated differently, yet each had designs for quick and efficient industrialized killing. While Höss was away on an official journey in late August 1941 his deputy, Karl Fritzsch（英語：Karl Fritzsch）, tested out an idea. At Auschwitz clothes infested with lice were treated with crystallised prussic acid. The crystals were made to order by the IG Farben chemicals company for which the brand name was Zyklon-B. Once released from their container, Zyklon-B crystals in the air released a lethal cyanide gas. Fritzch tried out the effect of Zyklon B on Soviet POWs, who were locked up in cells in the basement of the bunker for this experiment. Höss on his return was briefed and impressed with the results and this became the camp strategy for extermination as it was also to be at Majdanek. Besides gassing, the camp guards continued killing prisoners via mass shooting, starvation, torture, etc.[54]

毒氣

參見：The Holocaust § Gas chambers、Gas chamber § Nazi Germany和Criticism of Holocaust denial § Use of gas chambers

SS Obersturmführer Kurt Gerstein（英語：Kurt Gerstein）, of the Institute for Hygiene of the Waffen-SS, told a Swedish diplomat during the war of life in a death camp. He recounted that, on 19 August 1942, he arrived at Belzec extermination camp (which was equipped with carbon monoxide gas chambers) and was shown the unloading of 45 train cars filled with 6,700 Jews, many already dead. The rest were marched naked to the gas chambers, where:

Unterscharführer Hackenholt（英語：Lorenz Hackenholt） was making great efforts to get the engine running. But it doesn't go. Captain Wirth（英語：Christian Wirth） comes up. I can see he is afraid, because I am present at a disaster. Yes, I see it all and I wait. My stopwatch showed it all, 50 minutes, 70 minutes, and the diesel [engine] did not start. The people wait inside the gas chambers. In vain. They can be heard weeping, "like in the synagogue", says Professor Pfannenstiel, his eyes glued to a window in the wooden door. Furious, Captain Wirth lashes the Ukrainian (Trawniki（英語：Trawnikis）) assisting Hackenholt twelve, thirteen times, in the face. After 2 hours and 49 minutes – the stopwatch recorded it all – the diesel started. Up to that moment, the people shut up in those four crowded chambers were still alive, four times 750 persons, in four times 45 cubic meters. Another 25 minutes elapsed. Many were already dead, that could be seen through the small window, because an electric lamp inside lit up the chamber for a few moments. After 28 minutes, only a few were still alive. Finally, after 32 minutes, all were dead ... Dentists [then] hammered out gold teeth, bridges, and crowns. In the midst of them stood Captain Wirth. He was in his element, and, showing me a large can full of teeth, he said: "See, for yourself, the weight of that gold! It's only from yesterday, and the day before. You can't imagine what we find every day – dollars, diamonds, gold. You'll see for yourself!" — Kurt Gerstein [55]

March of new arrivals along the SS barracks at Birkenau toward the gassing bunker near crematoria II and III, 27 May 1944. (a photograph from a collection known as the Auschwitz Album（英語：Auschwitz Album）)

Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss reported that the first time Zyklon B pellets[56] were used on the Jews, many suspected they were to be killed – despite having been deceived into believing they were to be deloused[56] and then returned to the camp. As a result, the Nazis identified and isolated "difficult individuals" who might alert the prisoners, and removed them from the mass – lest they incite revolt among the deceived majority of prisoners en route to the gas chambers. The "difficult" prisoners were led to a site out of view to be killed off discreetly.

A prisoner Sonderkommando（英語：Sonderkommando） (Special Detachment) effected in the processes of extermination; they encouraged the Jews to undress without a hint of what was about to happen. They accompanied them into the gas chambers outfitted to appear as shower rooms (with nonworking water nozzles, and tile walls); and remained with the victims until just before the chamber door closed. To psychologically maintain the "calming effect" of the delousing deception, an SS man stood at the door until the end. The Sonderkommando talked to the victims about life in the camp to pacify the suspicious ones, and hurried them inside; to that effect, they also assisted the aged and the very young in undressing.[57]

To further persuade the prisoners that nothing harmful was happening, the Sonderkommando deceived them with small talk about friends or relations who had arrived in earlier transports. Many young mothers hid their infants beneath their piled clothes fearing that the delousing "disinfectant" might harm them. Camp Commandant Höss reported that the "men of the Special Detachment were particularly on the look-out for this", and encouraged the women to take their children into the "shower room". Likewise, the Sonderkommando comforted older children who might cry "because of the strangeness of being undressed in this fashion".[58]

Yet, not every prisoner was deceived by such psychological tactics; Commandant Höss spoke of Jews "who either guessed, or knew, what awaited them, nevertheless ... [they] found the courage to joke with the children, to encourage them, despite the mortal terror visible in their own eyes". Some women would suddenly "give the most terrible shrieks while undressing, or tear their hair, or scream like maniacs"; the Sonderkommando immediately took them away for execution by shooting.[59] In such circumstances, others, meaning to save themselves at the gas chamber's threshold, betrayed the identities and "revealed the addresses of those members of their race still in hiding".[60]

Once the door of the filled gas chamber was sealed, pellets of Zyklon B were dropped through special holes in the roof. Regulations required that the Camp Commandant supervise the preparations, the gassing (through a peephole), and the aftermath looting of the corpses. Commandant Höss reported that the gassed victims "showed no signs of convulsion"; the Auschwitz camp physicians attributed that to the "paralyzing effect on the lungs" of the Zyklon-B gas, which killed before the victim began suffering convulsions.[61]

The remnants of "Crematorium II" used in Auschwitz-Birkenau between March 1943 and its destruction by the Schutzstaffel on 20 January 1945
Fifty-two crematorium ovens, including these, were used to burn the bodies of up to 6,000 people every 24 hours during the operation of Auschwitz-Birkenau gas chambers.[62]

As a matter of political training, some high-ranked Nazi Party leaders and SS officers were sent to Auschwitz–Birkenau to witness the gassings; Höss reported that, "all were deeply impressed by what they saw ... [yet some] ... who had previously spoken most loudly, about the necessity for this extermination, fell silent once they had actually seen the 'final solution of the Jewish problem'." As the Auschwitz Camp Commandant Rudolf Höss justified the extermination by explaining the need for "the iron determination with which we must carry out Hitler's orders"; yet saw that even "[Adolf] Eichmann, who certainly [was] tough enough, had no wish to change places with me".[63]

處理屍體

After the gassings, the Sonderkommando removed the corpses from the gas chambers, then extracted any gold teeth. Initially, the victims were buried in mass graves, but were later cremated during Sonderaktion 1005（英語：Sonderaktion 1005） in all camps of Operation Reinhard.

The Sonderkommando were responsible for burning the corpses in the pits,[64] stoking the fires, draining surplus body fat and turning over the "mountain of burning corpses ... so that the draught might fan the flames" wrote Commandant Höss in his memoir while in the Polish custody.[64] He was impressed by the diligence of prisoners from the so-called Special Detachment who carried out their duties despite their being well aware that they, too, would meet exactly the same fate in the end.[64] At the Lazaret killing station they held the sick so they would never see the gun while being shot. They did it "in such a matter-of-course manner that they might, themselves, have been the exterminators" wrote Höss.[64] He further said that the men ate and smoked "even when engaged in the grisly job of burning corpses which had been lying for some time in mass graves."[64] They occasionally encountered the corpse of a relative, or saw them entering the gas chambers. According to Höss they were obviously shaken by this but "it never led to any incident." He mentioned the case of a Sonderkommando who found the body of his wife, yet continued to drag corpses along "as though nothing had happened."[64]

At Auschwitz, the corpses were incinerated in crematoria（英語：crematorium） and the ashes either buried, scattered, or dumped in the river. At Sobibór, Treblinka, Belzec, and Chełmno, the corpses were incinerated on pyres. The efficiency of industrialised killing at Auschwitz-Birkenau led to the construction of three buildings with crematoria designed by specialists from the firm J.A. Topf & Söhne（英語：J.A. Topf & Söhne）. They burned bodies 24 hours a day, and yet the death rate was at times so high that corpses also needed to be burned in open-air pits.[65]

烏斯塔沙組織的滅絕營

Jasenovac victims' bodies left without burial on the river Sava near Sisak, May 1945
主條目：Jadovno concentration camp和Jasenovac concentration camp

The United States Holocaust Memorial Museum (USHMM) in Washington, DC, presently estimates that the Ustaša regime in Croatia murdered between 77,000 and 99,000 people at their own Jasenovac concentration camp between 1941 and 1945. The Jasenovac Memorial Site quotes a similar figure of between 80,000 and 100,000 victims.[66] The television documentary, "Nazi Collaborators" on Dinko Sakic（英語：Dinko Sakic） stated that over 300,000 people were killed at Jasenovac.[49] The mechanical means of mass killing at Jasenovac initially included the use of gas vans and later Zyklon B in stationary gas chambers. The Jasenovac guards were also reported to have cremated living inmates in the crematorium. A notable difference with the Ustaše camps as compared to the German SS camps was the widespread use of manual methods in the mass killings. These involved instruments such as mallets and agricultural knives which were often used in a manner where victims were thrown off the end of a ramp into the Sava River while they were still alive .

The estimates for the Jadovno concentration camp（英語：Jadovno concentration camp） generally offer a range of 10,000 – 72,000 deaths at the camp over a period of 122 days (May to August 1941).[67] Most commonly Jadovno victims were bound together in a line and the first few victims were murdered with rifle butts or other objects. Afterwards, an entire row of inmates were pushed into the ravine. Hand grenades were hurled inside in order to finish off the victims. Dogs would also be thrown in to feed on the wounded and the dead. Inmates were also killed by machine gunfire, as well as with knives and blunt objects.[68][69]

死亡統計

The estimated total number of people executed in the Nazi extermination camps in the table below is over three million:

Camp Estimated
deaths 		Operational Occupied territory Current country of location Primary means for mass killings
Auschwitz–Birkenau 1,100,000 [70] May 1940 – January 1945 Province of Upper Silesia Poland Zyklon B gas chambers
Treblinka 800,000 [71] 23 July 1942 – 19 October 1943 General Government district Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers
Bełżec 600,000 [72] 17 March 1942 – end of June 1943 General Government district Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers
Chełmno 320,000 [73] 8 December 1941 – March 1943,
June 1944 – 18 January 1945 		District of Reichsgau Wartheland（英語：Reichsgau Wartheland） Poland Carbon monoxide vans
Sobibór 250,000[74] 16 May 1942 – 17 October 1943 General Government district Poland Carbon monoxide gas chambers
Majdanek at least 80,000 [75] 1 October 1941 – 22 July 1944 General Government district Poland Zyklon B gas chambers
Maly Trostinets 65,000 [76] Middle of 1941 to 28 June 1944 Reichskommissariat Ostland Belarus Mass shootings, gas van[77]
Sajmište（英語：Sajmište concentration camp） 23,000 [78] 28 October 1941 – July 1944 Independent State of Croatia Serbia Carbon monoxide van
Total 3,115,000 – 3,215,000 [79][80]

拆解與嘗試銷毀證據

A Sonderkommando 1005 unit stand next to a bone crushing machine at the Janowska concentration camp（英語：Janowska concentration camp）

The Nazis attempted to either partly or completely dismantle the extermination camps in order to hide any evidence that people had been murdered. This was an attempt to conceal not only the extermination process but also the buried remains. As a result of the secretive Sonderaktion 1005（英語：Sonderaktion 1005）, camps were dismantled by commandos of condemned prisoners, records destroyed, and mass graves were dug up. Some extermination camps that remained uncleared of evidence were liberated by Soviet troops, who had different standards of documentation and openness than the Western allies.[81][82]

Nonetheless Majdanek was captured nearly intact due to the rapid advance of the Soviet Red Army during Operation Bagration.[81]

紀念

In the post-war period the government of the People's Republic of Poland created monuments at the extermination camp sites. These early monuments mentioned no ethnic, religious, or national particulars of the Nazi victims. The extermination camps sites have been accessible to everyone in recent decades. They are popular destinations for visitors from all over the world, especially the most infamous Nazi death camp, Auschwitz near the town of Oświęcim. In the early 1990s, the Jewish Holocaust organisations debated with the Polish Catholic groups about "What religious symbols of martyrdom are appropriate as memorials in a Nazi death camp such as Auschwitz?" The Jews opposed the placement of Christian memorials such as the Auschwitz cross（英語：Auschwitz cross） near Auschwitz I where mostly Poles were killed. The Jewish victims of the Holocaust were mostly killed at Auschwitz II Birkenau.

The March of the Living（英語：March of the Living） is organized in Poland annually since 1988.[83] Marchers come from countries as diverse as Estonia, New Zealand, Panama, and Turkey.[84]

滅絕營與大屠殺否定論

Documentary evidence: A Reichsbahn consignment note for delivering prisoners (Häftlinge) to Sobibór in November 1943
主條目：Holocaust denial和Criticism of Holocaust denial

Holocaust deniers or negationists（英語：Historical negationism） are people and organizations who assert that the Holocaust did not occur, or that it did not occur in the historically recognized manner and extent.[85]

Extermination camp research is difficult because of extensive attempts by the SS and Nazi regime to conceal the existence of the extermination camps.[81] The existence of the extermination camps is firmly established by testimonies of camp survivors and Final Solution perpetrators, material evidence (the remaining camps, etc.), Nazi photographs and films of the killings, and camp administration records.[86][87]

Holocaust deniers often start by pointing out legitimate public misconceptions about the extermination camps. For example, widely published images in America were mostly of typhoid victims and Soviet POWs at the Buchenwald and Dachau concentration camps – the first to be liberated by American troops and the most available imagery in America. In early news reports and for years afterwards these images were often used by the news media somewhat inaccurately in conjunction with descriptions of extermination camps and Jewish suffering. Holocaust deniers, after pointing out such common errors, put it forward as evidence that extermination camps did not exist and the limited evidence about them is mostly a hoax arising out of a deliberate Jewish conspiracy（英語：Jewish conspiracy）.

Holocaust denial has been thoroughly discredited by scholars and is a criminal offence（英語：Laws against Holocaust denial） in 17 countries: Austria, Belgium, Czech Republic, France, Germany, Hungary, Israel, Liechtenstein, Lithuania, Luxembourg, Netherlands, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Slovakia, and Switzerland.

參見

註解

  1. ^ The development of homicidal gas chambers is attributed by historians to Dr Albert Widmann（英語：Albert Widmann）, chief chemist of the German Criminal Police (Kripo（英語：Kripo）).[4] The first gas van manufactured in Berlin, was used by the Lange Commando（英語：Herbert Lange） between 21 May and 8 June 1940 at the Soldau concentration camp（英語：Soldau concentration camp） in occupied Poland, to kill 1,558 mental patients delivered from sanatoria.[5][6] Lange used his experience with exhaust gasses in setting up the Chelmno extermination camp thereafter.[7] Widmann conducted first gassing experiments in the East in September 1941 in Mogilev, and successfully initiated the killing of local hospital patients with the exhaust fumes from a truck engine, minimizing the psychological impact of the crime on the Einsatzgruppe.[8]

腳註

  1. ^ 1.0 1.1 1.2 Yad Vashem. The Implementation of the Final Solution: The Death Camps. The Holocaust. Yad Vashem, The Holocaust Martyrs' and Heroes' Remembrance Authority. 2012 –透過Internet Archive, 4 November 2013.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助) Also in: Wolf Gruner. Jewish Forced Labor as a Basic Element of Nazi Persecution: Germany, Austria, and the Occupied Polish Territories (1938–1943) (PDF). Forced and Slave Labor in Nazi-Dominated Europe (Center for Advanced Holocaust Studies, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum). 2004: 43–44. 
  2. ^ Robert Gellately; Nathan Stoltzfus. Social Outsiders in Nazi Germany. Princeton University Press. 2001: 216. ISBN 978-0-691-08684-2. 
  3. ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia. Gassing Operations. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum, Washington, DC. 20 June 2014 [25 January 2015]. 
  4. ^ Christopher R. Browning（英語：Christopher R. Browning）. The Origins of the Final Solution: The Evolution of Nazi Jewish Policy, September 1939-March 1942. Germany and Europe (U of Nebraska Press). 2007: 188–189 [16 September 2015]. ISBN 0-8032-0392-6. 
  5. ^ The Simon Wiesenthal Center. Responses to Revisionist Arguments. 2006. 
  6. ^ Jewish Virtual Library. The Development of the Gas-Van in the Murdering of the Jews. 2006. 
  7. ^ Christopher R. Browning（英語：Christopher R. Browning）. Remembering Survival: Inside a Nazi Slave-Labor Camp. W. W. Norton & Company. 2011: 53–54. ISBN 0393338878. 
  8. ^ Laurence Rees. Auschwitz: A New History. Public Affairs. 2006: 53, 148. 
  9. ^ Russell, Shahan. The Ten Worst Nazi Concentration Camps. WarHistoryOnline.com. 12 October 2015. 
  10. ^ " Die Endlösung der Judenfrage" – Adolf Hitler (In English, "The final solution of the Jewish problem"). Furet, François. Unanswered Questions: Nazi Germany and the Genocide of the Jews. Schocken Books (1989), p. 182; ISBN 978-0-8052-4051-1
  11. ^ Doris Bergen, Germany and the Camp System, part of Auschwitz: Inside the Nazi State, Community Television of Southern California, 2004–2005.
  12. ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia. The Jasenovac camp complex. Washington, DC: United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. [4 February 2016]. It is presently estimated that the Ustaša regime murdered between 77,000 and 99,000 people in Jasenovac between 1941 and 1945. 
  13. ^ Michael Burleigh. Death and Deliverance: 'Euthanasia' in Germany, c. 1900 to 1945. CUP Archive. 1994. ISBN 0-521-47769-7. 
  14. ^ Webb, Chris. Otwock & the Zofiowka Sanatorium: A Refuge from Hell. Holocaust Research Project. Holocaust Education & Archive Research Team. 2009. 原始內容存檔於11 July 2011 –透過Internet Archive. 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 Yad Vashem. Aktion Reinhard (PDF). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. 2013 [15 September 2015]. Document size 33.1 KB. 
  16. ^ Longerich, Peter. Holocaust: The Nazi Persecution and Murder of the Jews. Oxford; New York: Oxford University Press. 2010: 185. ISBN 978-0-19-280436-5. 
  17. ^ Saul Friedländer（英語：Saul Friedländer）. Nazi Germany And The Jews, 1933–1945 (PDF). HarperCollins Publishers. February 2009: 293–294 / 507 [15 September 2015]. ISBN 978-0-06-177730-1. Complete. 
  18. ^ John Mendelsohn, ed. Wannsee Protocol of January 20, 1942. The Holocaust: Selected Documents in Eighteen Volumes. Vol. 11. The official U.S. government translation prepared for evidence in trials at Nuremberg. 1945 [15 September 2015]. 
  19. ^ 19.0 19.1 History of the Belzec extermination camp [Historia Niemieckiego Obozu Zagłady w Bełżcu], Muzeum - Miejsce Pamięci w Bełżcu (National Bełżec Museum & Monument of Martyrdom), [15 September 2015], （原始內容存檔於29 October 2015） （Polish） 
  20. ^ Christopher R. Browning（英語：Christopher R. Browning）. Remembering Survival: Inside a Nazi Slave-Labor Camp. b (W. W. Norton & Company). 2011: 54, 65 [28 June 2015]. ISBN 0-393-33887-8. 
  21. ^ Kenneth McVay. The Construction of the Treblinka Extermination Camp. Yad Vashem Studies, XVI. Jewish Virtual Library.org. 1984 [15 September 2015].  Also in: Rael D. Strous MD. Dr. Irmfried Eberl (1910–1948): mass murdering MD (PDF) 11. IMAJ: 216–218. April 2009 [6 October 2015]. 
  22. ^ Rees, Laurence. Auschwitz: A New History. New York: Public Affairs. 2005: 96–97. ISBN 1-58648-303-X. 
  23. ^ Sereny, Gitta. The Healing Wound: Experiences and Reflections on Germany 1938–1941. Norton. 2001: 135–46. ISBN 978-0-393-04428-7. 
  24. ^ Auschwitz-Birkenau Memorial and Museum in Oświęcim, Poland 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期10 December 2008..
  25. ^ Minerbi, Alessandra. A New Illustrated History of the Nazis. Rare Photographs of the Third Reich (UK: David & Charles). 2005: 168– [2002]. ISBN 0-7153-2101-3. 
  26. ^ Black, Peter R. Bankir, David , 編. Police Auxiliaries for Operation Reinhard. Secret Intelligence and the Holocaust (Enigma Books). 2006: 331–348. ISBN 1-929631-60-X –透過Google Books. 
  27. ^ Gordon Williamson. The SS: Hitler's Instrument of Terror. Zenith Imprint. 2004: 101. ISBN 0-7603-1933-2. 
  28. ^ George H. Stein. The Waffen SS. SS-Totenkopfverbände. : 9, 20–33 [7 October 2015]. ISBN 0-8014-9275-0. 
  29. ^ Diary of Johann Paul Kremer (September 5, 1942). Holocaust-history.org. 2 March 1999 [27 August 2013]. （原始內容存檔於14 May 2008）. 
  30. ^ Overy, Richard. Interrogations, p. 356–357. Penguin 2002. ISBN 978-0-14-028454-6
  31. ^ 31.0 31.1 John C. Beyer; Stephen A. Schneider. Forced Labour under Third Reich - Part 1 (PDF). Introduction (Nathan Associates). 2006: 3–17 [7 October 2015]. （原始內容 (PDF)存檔於24 August 2015）. Number of foreign laborers employed as of January 1944 (excluding those already dead): total of 3,795,000. From Poland: 1,400,000 (survival rate 25.2); from the Soviet Union: 2,165,000 (survival rate 27.7) Table 5.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助)
  32. ^ Ulrich Herbert. Hitler's Foreign Workers: Enforced Foreign Labor in Germany under the Third Reich. The Army of Millions of the Modern Slave State (extract) (Cambridge University Press). 1997 [7 October 2015]. （原始內容存檔於4 June 2011） –透過Internet Archive; Univ of the West of England, Faculty of Humanities; compiled by Dr S.D. Stein. 
  33. ^ "The evacuation of Jews to Poland", Jewish Virtual Library.'.' Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  34. ^ Ellen Land-Weber, "Conditions for Polish Jews During WWII" in To Save a Life: Stories of Holocaust Rescue.'.' Retrieved 28 July 2009.
  35. ^ Yad Vashem. Aktion Reinhard (PDF). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. 2013 [5 August 2016]. Document size 33.1 KB. 
  36. ^ Ghettos, United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
  37. ^ Desbois, Patrick. Operation 1005. The Holocaust by Bullets: A Priest's Journey to Uncover the Truth Behind the Murder of 1.5 Million Jews. New York, N.Y.: Palgrave Macmillan. August 19, 2008: 170. ISBN 978-0-2305-9456-2 （English）. 
  38. ^ Arad, Yitzhak. Belzec, Sobibor, Treblinka: The Operation Reinhard Death Camps. Indiana University Press. 1999: 152–153. ISBN 978-0-253-21305-1. 
  39. ^ Arad 1999, p. 37.
  40. ^ Aktion Reinhard: Belzec, Sobibor & Treblinka. 
  41. ^ Deportation and transportation. The Holocaust Explained. London Jewish Cultural Centre. 2011 [5 August 2016]. （原始內容存檔於13 January 2015） –透過Internet Archive.  無效|deadurl=bot: unknown (幫助)
  42. ^ Yad Vashem. Aktion Reinhard (PDF file, direct download 33.1 KB). Shoah Resource Center, The International School for Holocaust Studies. 2013. 
  43. ^ Grossman, Vasily, The Treblinka Hell [Треблинский ад] (PDF), Moscow: Foreign Languages Publishing House, (online version), 1946 [5 October 2014] –透過direct download 2.14 MB, original in Russian: Гроссман В.С., Повести, рассказы, очерки [Stories, Journalism, and Essays], Воениздат 1958. 
  44. ^ M. Lifshitz, "Zionism" (משה ליפשיץ, "ציונות") p. 304. Compare with H. Abraham, "History of Israel and the nations in the era of Holocaust and uprising (חדד אברהם, "תולדות ישראל והעמים בתקופת השואה והתקומה")"
  45. ^ Jerzy Kochanowski. Śmierć w Warschau [Death in Warschau]. Polityka.pl – Historia. 4 November 2009 （Polish）. 
  46. ^ Dr. Birgit Bock-Luna. Serbian 'holocaust' in: The Jasenovac debate. The Past in Exile (LIT Verlag Münster). 2007. 155, Note 102. ISBN 3-8258-9752-4. The numbers of the dead vary greatly and are itself at the core of the debate about the Second World War. Whereas some authors argue that between 800,000 and one million Serbs died at the hands of the Croat Ustase and its Muslim allies, others estimate a total of 487,000 murdered Serbs. On the other hand Franjo Tudjman defends the number of only 50,000. Clearly, the 'number game' was of major significance during the wars in the 1990s.  The Holocaust Encyclopedia currently estimates that the Ustaša regime murdered between 77,000 and 99,000 people. See also: Genocide and Fascism; The Eliminationist Drive in Fascist Europe by Aristotle Kallis, Routledge, New York, NY 2009, pages 236–244.
  47. ^ M. Shelach (ed.), "History of the holocaust: Yugoslavia".
  48. ^ Cox 2007，第225頁.
  49. ^ 49.0 49.1 "Nazi Collaborators", Yesterday TV, UK（英語：Yesterday (TV channel)）, 12.00, 11 January 2014.
  50. ^ Tomasevich, Jozo. War and Revolution in Yugoslavia, 1941–1945: Occupation and Collaboration. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. 2001. ISBN 978-0-8047-3615-2. 
  51. ^ State Commission, 1946, pp. 9–11, 46–47
  52. ^ 52.0 52.1 "Auschwitz: The Nazis and the Final Solution" Yesterday television channel, 18:00, 18 November 2013
  53. ^ Hoss （原文如此）, Rudolf (2005). "I, the Commandant of Auschwitz," in Lewis, Jon E. (ed.), True War Stories, p. 321. Carroll & Graf Publishers. ISBN 978-0-7867-1533-6.
  54. ^ Borkin, Joseph. The Crime and Punishment of IG Farben. New York: Free Press. 1978. ISBN 978-0-02-904630-2. 
  55. ^ Roderick Stackelberg, Sally Anne Winkle. The Nazi Sourcebook: An Anthology of Texts. Routledge. 2002: 354. ISBN 978-0-415-22213-6. 
  56. ^ 56.0 56.1 At the Killing Centers. www.ushmm.org. [2018-03-02] （英語）. 
  57. ^ Höss, pp. 164–165, 321–322.
  58. ^ Höss, pp. 164–165, 322–323.
  59. ^ Höss, p. 323.
  60. ^ Höss, p. 324.
  61. ^ Höss, pp. 320, 328.
  62. ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia. Gassing Operations. The means of mass murder at Auschwitz. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum. 20 June 2014 [12 July 2015]. 
  63. ^ Höss, p. 328.
  64. ^ 64.0 64.1 64.2 64.3 64.4 64.5 Höss 1959, p. 168.
  65. ^ Berenbaum, Michael; Yisrael Gutman. Anatomy of the Auschwitz Death Camp. Indiana University Press. 1998: 199. ISBN 978-0-253-20884-2. 
  66. ^ Official Website of the Jasenovac Memorial Site. 
  67. ^ US Holocaust Memorial Museum: Jasenovac 網際網路檔案館的存檔，存檔日期2 August 2003.
  68. ^ Mojzes 2011，第60頁.
  69. ^ Mojzes 2009，第160頁.
  70. ^ USHMM.org. Auschwitz. （原始內容存檔於17 January 2010）. It is estimated that the SS and police deported at a minimum 1.3 million people to Auschwitz complex between 1940 and 1945. Of these, the camp authorities murdered 1.1 million." (Number includes victims killed in other Auschwitz camps.) 
  71. ^ The Höfle Telegram（英語：Höfle Telegram） indicates some 700,000 killed by 31 December 1942, yet the camp functioned until 1943, hence the true deaths total likely is greater. Reinhard: Treblinka Deportations. Nizkor.org. [20 December 2012]. 
  72. ^ USHMM.org. Belzec. Between March and December 1942, the Germans deported some 434,500 Jews, and an indeterminate number of Poles and Roma (Gypsies) to Belzec, to be killed. 
  73. ^ USHMM.org. Chełmno. In total, the SS and the police killed some 152,000 people in Chełmno. 
  74. ^ In all, the Germans and their auxiliaries killed at least 170,000 people at Sobibór. Holocaust Encyclopedia.
  75. ^ A recent study reduced the estimated number of deaths at Majdanek, [in:] "Majdanek Victims Enumerated" by Pawel P. Reszka, Lublin, Gazeta Wyborcza 12 December 2005, reproduced on the site of the Auschwitz–Birkenau Museum: Lublin scholar Tomasz Kranz established new figure which the Majdanek museum staff consider authoritative. Earlier calculations were greater: ca. 360,000, in a much-cited 1948 publication by Judge Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz（英語：Zdzisław Łukaszkiewicz）, of the Main Commission for the Investigation of Nazi Crimes in Poland; and ca. 235,000, in a 1992 article by Dr. Czeslaw Rajca, formerly of the Majdanek museum. However, the number of those whose deaths the camp administration did not register remains unknown.
  76. ^ Yad Vashem, Maly Trostinets (PDF). [1 September 2013]. 
  77. ^ At the Maly Trostenets extermination camp in Belarus, USSR, some 65,000 Jews were murdered according to Yad Vashem (PDF file, direct download) whilst the estimated number of 200,000 people perished in the Trostenets area. See also: Yad Vashem overview. Internet Archive.
  78. ^ According to the Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia（英語：Helsinki Committee for Human Rights in Serbia）, after the war overall death toll was greatly exaggerated by the communists for political purposes. The real number of inmates killed was about 20,000. – Slobodanka Ast. Patriotic Tears and Calculations. November 2011. 
  79. ^ Holocaust Encyclopedia, NAZI CAMPS. United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
  80. ^ Terese Pencak Schwartz, The Holocaust: Non-Jewish Victims. Jewish Virtual Library.
  81. ^ 81.0 81.1 81.2 Arad, Yitzhak, Operation Reinhard: Extermination Camps of Belzec, Sobibor and Treblinka (PDF), Yad Vashem Studies XVI (Internet Archive): 205–239 (26/30 of current document), 1984, The Attempt to Remove Traces. 
  82. ^ Davies, Norman, Europe: A History (internal link) (also at Google Books preview), HarperCollins, 1998, ISBN 0-06-097468-0 
  83. ^ March of the Living International. motl.org. 
  84. ^ March of the Living Canada. motl.org. 
  85. ^ Mathis, Andrew E. Holocaust Denial: A Definition. ABC-CLIO. [4 March 2017]. 
  86. ^ Patrick Hobbs, Joseph. Dear General: Eisenhower's Wartime Letters to Marshall. Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. 12 May 1999 [21 February 2017]. ISBN 0801862191. 
  87. ^ The History of the Center of Contemporary Jewish Documentation (CDJC). （原始內容存檔於16 March 2015）.  已忽略未知參數|df= (幫助)

參考文獻

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