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義和團

維基百科，自由的百科全書
  「義和拳」重新導向至此。關於該組織所引發的運動，請見「義和團運動」。關於美國華人的左派組織，請見「義和拳 (美國)」。
義和團
別名
  • 「梅花拳」（1898年）
  • 「義和團」（1899年）
  • 「義和拳」（1899年–1901年）
主要首領之一曹福田
主要首領之二張德成
活躍期1890年代–1901年9月
國家 中國
意識形態
口號「扶清滅洋」[1]
人數50,000人–100,000人
戰役、戰爭義和團運動
義和團
繁體字 義和團
簡化字 义和团
義民會
繁體字 義民會
簡化字 义民会
梅花拳
漢語梅花拳
義和拳
繁體字 義和拳
簡化字 义和拳
義和團拳民，攝於天津的義和團運動期間（1901年）

義和團，又稱「義和拳」、「義民會」、「梅花拳」等，是一個興起於中國北部的秘密結社[2][3]。該組織曾於1899年至1901年期間於清朝各地發起義和團運動[4]。

義和團起初由當時中國北方各地的獨立村莊組織形成，由於是秘密結社因此許多成員的身份不得而知，故而難以精確估計參與者的總數，但可能多達數十萬人。義和團在運動初期主要攻擊清廷[5]，但很快便轉而呼籲「扶清滅洋」，在支持清政府的同時抵制外國勢力[6][7]。

自1900年夏起，義和團成員開始大規模破壞當時在華外國人所擁有的財產，如鐵路和電報等現代設施，同時成批抓捕並殺害基督教傳教士與中國基督徒[8]。此後義和團開始擁護慈禧太后，並在之後參與抵抗由此引發的聯軍入侵，而後者近乎完全毀滅了義和團並最終結束了該運動，但其部分成員事後繼續參與了中國各地的其他秘密團體活動[9][10]。

名稱

在英語世界裏，義和團因其成員大多練習中國武術（當時被稱為「中國拳擊」，即「Chinese boxing」）而被通稱為「拳民」（Boxers）[11][12]。儘管該組織及其前身自19世紀80年代中期起便已普遍存在於民間，但其首次被外界稱為「義民會」是在1899年清朝為解決山東和直隸兩省的動亂而提交的一份報告中[13]。這一稱呼在後續的報告中被證明是一個錯誤，其實際名稱應為「義和團」[14]。

義和團曾於1898年期間被稱為「梅花拳」，但該名稱於在1899年以後幾乎不再使用[15]。

起源

清朝年間的一些秘密結社組織，如大刀會和白蓮教等，往往具有重大的力量與影響力。這些組織經常通過其武裝成員，利用當時中國許多地區缺乏秩序以及腐敗猖獗等現象來對廣大偏遠甚至中心地區施加控制並傳播影響[16]。

已隱藏部分未翻譯內容，歡迎參與翻譯。

Yi-he boxing, as it was later practised by the Fists of Harmony and Justice, long predated the movement. In 1779, the Qing government already investigated rumours according to which a man named Yang practised this martial arts style in Guan County, Shandong, though state authorities were unable to confirm this at the time.[17]

Though the Boxer movement would originate in Shandong and Hebei intent on lessening governmental influence throughout China by means of violence, the group would quickly include its directive to attempt to eliminate all foreign influence also, which was considered at the time to have already penetrated the imperial government. The group at this time was deeply associated with other secret societies in their efforts to eliminate Christians, as can be seen in the 4 July 1896 with attacks on German missionaries in the regions of Western Shandong that later were controlled by the Boxers.[15]

The movement first began in these areas in the mid-1880s as various group with similar aims, led by local influences such as Zhang Decheng in Hebei, and Zhu Hongdeng in Shandong, both leading small but devoted groups directly under their personal control. These small groups served as local enforcers of the Boxers' efforts to control the populace, to curtail the influence of both the Qing government and that of foreigners, particularly Christians.

During 1898, the previously separate Boxer groups in Shandong and Hebei would fall under much more direct leadership, with the establishment of structure into the group in the form of ranks. This would also involve the renaming of the group into the "Plum Blossom Fists". However, the name-change was not used past 1898, with the name "Fists of Harmony and Justice" used instead.[15]

On 23 May 1898, an investigation was made by the Guangxu Emperor into disturbances in the Shandong-Zhili border region by a supposed "National Righteousness Group", with the possibility of 10,000 Boxer soldiers being under group command in this region. A representative of the monarchy, Zhang Rumei, would be sent along with an army to put down any unrest in the region. The result of the meeting was not negative, with Zhang reporting that there was no trouble in the region, along with more accurate reports on the group's smaller numbers.

The movement was primarily composed of peasants, to which were added idle youth, ruined artisans, and laid-off workers.[18] Some Boxer recruits were disbanded imperial soldiers and local militiamen.[19]

衝突

主條目：義和團運動
已隱藏部分未翻譯內容，歡迎參與翻譯。

In March 1898, the Boxers started to agitate the population in the streets with the slogan "Uphold the Qing, destroy foreigners!". Their main leader was Cao Futian.[11] Other leaders in Zhili Province were Liu Chengxiang, and Zhang Decheng.

After a battle with the Imperial troops in October 1899, the Boxers focused mainly on missionaries and Christian activities, as they were considered "tainting the purity of the Chinese culture". The Qing government was divided towards how to react to the Boxer's activities. The conservative element of the court was in favour of them. Prince Duan, a fervent supporter of their cause, arranged a meeting between Cao and Empress Dowager Ci Xi.[20] At the meeting, the crown prince even wore a Boxer uniform to show support.[21]

At the beginning of June 1900, about 450 men of the Eight-Nation Alliance arrived in Beijing to protect the foreign legations under siege by the Boxers and Imperial Army, in what was the Siege of the International Legations. The Boxers were at their peak, now supported by some elements of the Imperial Army. They changed their slogan to "Support the Qing, destroy foreigners!".[22]

The Boxers multiplied their murderous actions against foreigners and Chinese Christians. In Beijing, the Boxers were officially placed under command of members of the Court, such as Prince Duan. During the Rebellion, the Boxers, fighting troops of the Eight-Nation Alliance with close combat weapons or even their own hands, were decimated. After the conflict, The Empress Dowager Ci Xi ordered the repression of the remaining Boxers, in an attempt to calm the foreign nations.[23]

流行文化

已隱藏部分未翻譯內容，歡迎參與翻譯。

The Boxer Rebellion is depicted in the film 55 Days at Peking, by Nicholas Ray (1963).

The Boxers are portrayed in Boxers and Saints, a comic series by Gene Luen Yang. The main character of Boxers, Lee Bao, becomes a leader of the Boxer Rebellion.

The Boxer Rebellion is graphically depicted in the Shaw Brothers production of Boxer Rebellion, a 1976 film directed by Chang Cheh. This film was distributed in the United States as The Bloody Avengers by World Northal Corporation in 1980. The Boxers are also featured in the films Legendary Weapons of China (1981) and Shanghai Knights (2003). The Red Lanterns, an all-female group affiliated to the Boxers, are depicted in the film Once Upon a Time in China IV (1993). The Netflix series The Brothers Sun (2024) uses their name and parts of their ideology in its plot for a major protagonist group.

參見

書目

  • Bickers, Robert A.; R. G. Tiedemann (eds.) (2007). The Boxers, China, and the World. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 978-0-7425-5394-1.
  • Buck, David D. (1987). "Recent Studies of the Boxer Movement", Chinese Studies in History 20. Introduction to a special issue of the journal devoted to translations of recent research on the Boxers in the People's Republic.
  • Cohen, Paul A. History in Three Keys: The Boxers as Event, Experience, and Myth需要免費註冊 Revised. Columbia University Press. 1997. ISBN 9780231106511. 
  • Elliott, Jane E. Some Did It for Civilisation, Some Did It for Their Country: A Revised View of the Boxer War. Hong Kong: Chinese University Press. 2002. ISBN 962-201-973-0. 
  • Esherick, Joseph W. The Origins of the Boxer Uprising需要免費註冊. U of California Press. 1987. ISBN 0-520-06459-3. 
  • Preston, Diana. The Boxer Rebellion: The Dramatic Story of China's War on Foreigners That Shook the World in the Summer of 1900需要免費註冊. New York: Walker. 2000. ISBN 0-8027-1361-0.  British title: Besieged in Peking: The Story of the 1900 Boxer Rising (London: Constable, 1999).

參考文獻

  1. ^ Foord, John, The Meaning of the Unrest in China, The New York Times: 23, 25 March 1900 [3 May 2024], （原始內容存檔於2024-08-28） （英語） 
  2. ^ 《紐約時報》. 两张照片与义和团运动. 紐約時報中文網. 2018-05-28 [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15） （zh-cmn-hans）. 
  3. ^ 清末最神秘的群众运动：义和团，是怎么发展起来的？_清政府. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  4. ^ 一百年前的此时，义和团运动正在兴起_思想文化. www.historychina.net. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-01-16）. 
  5. ^ 从反清复明到扶清灭洋，“神功护体”的义和团_中国. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  6. ^ 义和团为什么要“扶清灭洋”？有一个重要理由令人哭笑不得_中国. www.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  7. ^ 網易. 义和团本来反清复明，为何突然要扶清灭洋？他们是被慈禧消灭的吗. www.163.com. 2020-09-25 [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  8. ^ 义和团、基督徒和神：从宗教战争角度看1900年的义和团斗争. 漢語基督教研究網. 2014-11-25 [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  9. ^ 中国军史：1900年 义和团运动高潮-搜狐新闻. news.sohu.com. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  10. ^ 戊戌变法和义和团运动. www.gov.cn. [2024-08-15]. （原始內容存檔於2024-08-15）. 
  11. ^ 11.0 11.1 Australian War Memorial. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於18 February 2011）. 
  12. ^ MacKerras, Colin. China in Transformation, 1900–1949. Pearson Longman. 2008. ISBN 9781405840583 （英語）. 
  13. ^ Muramatsu, Yuzi. The "boxers" in 1898–1899, the origin of the "I-Ho-Chuan" (義和拳) uprising, 1900. The Annals of the Hitotsubashi Academy. April 1953, 3 (2): 236–261. JSTOR 43751277. 
  14. ^ Google Ngram Viewer. books.google.com. [18 January 2019]. 
  15. ^ 15.0 15.1 15.2 Purcell, Victor. The Boxer Uprising: A Background Study. Cambridge University Press. 3 June 2010. ISBN 9780521148122 （英語）. 
  16. ^ Boxer Rebellion. Encyclopaedia Britannica. [29 February 2020]. （原始內容存檔於2023-10-10）. 
  17. ^ Esherick, Joseph W. The origins of the Boxer Uprising需要免費註冊. Berkeley, California; Los Angeles; London: University of California Press. 1987: 141 （英語）. 
  18. ^ Le movement des boxers in china (1898-1900). you-feng.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2024-07-21）. 
  19. ^ China, Japan, and the Ryukyu Islands. Encyclopedia Britannica. history-geography. [3 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2024-10-07） （英語）. 
  20. ^ Chinese monarchs – Zaiyi (26 August 1856 – 24 November 1922) was a Manchu prince and statesman of the late Qing Dynasty. www.nouahsark.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2017-08-31）. 
  21. ^ Lucia. China's Confession: Episode 4. www.chinasoul.org. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於31 August 2017） （英國英語）. 
  22. ^ Significance, Combatants, Definition, & Facts. Encyclopedia Britannica. Boxer Rebellion. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於2023-10-10） （英語）. 
  23. ^ La révolte des Boxeurs, un autre son de cloche. tao-yin.com. [2 December 2017]. （原始內容存檔於31 August 2011）. 
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