性别认同
系列条目 |
LGBT主题 |
---|
女同性恋(L) ∙ 男同性恋 (G) 双性恋 (B)∙ 跨性别(T) |
性倾向和性别认同 |
概观 |
文化 |
权益 |
社会态度 |
研究和论述 |
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性别认同(英语:Gender identity)是一个人对自己性别的个人认知定位。[1]性别认同可以与一个人出生时的指定性别相关,也可以与之不同。[2]性别表现通常反映一个人的性别认同,但情况并非总是如此。[3][4]虽然一个人可能会表现出与特定性别角色相一致的行为、态度和外貌,但这种表现不一定反映出他们的性别认同。性别认同这个词最初是由Robert Jesse Stoller在1964年提出。[5]
所有社会都有一套性别范畴,可以作为一个人在其他相联系的社会成员中形成身份认同的基础。[6]在大多数社会中,指定性别中的男性特质和女性特质之间存在基本的分歧,[7]这是大多数人坚持的性别二元论,其中包括对性别(生物性别、性别认同和性别表现)所有方面的男性特质和女性特质的期望。[8]有些人并不认同(或不完全认同)基于生物性别的性别指定,[9]例如一些人是跨性别,性别酷儿者或非二元性别人群。有一些社会有第三性别分类。
除了例外,性别认同在童年早期迅速发展,在大多情况下,到 3 岁或 4 岁时,性别认同至少部分变得不可逆转。[10][11] Endocrine Society(内分泌学会)表示“大量科学证据表明性别认同背后存在持久的生物学因素。个人可能会因生活中的其他因素而做出选择,但似乎并没有真正导致性别认同的外部力量个人改变性别认同”。[12] 尝试改变性别认同容易导致性别不安。[13]
形成年龄
关于性别认同的形成方式和时间有好几种理论,研究这一主题很困难,因为儿童缺乏语言能力,需要研究人员从间接证据中作出假设。[13]约翰·曼尼认为孩子们可能早在年龄18个月到两岁之间就已经意识到性别,并且认为性别具有一定的意义。劳伦斯·柯尔伯格认为,性别认同要到3岁才能形成。[13]专家普遍认为,核心性别认同在三岁就已经牢牢地形成了。[13][14]在三岁时,儿童可以坚定地表明自己的性别,[13][15]并倾向于选择适合他们性别的活动和玩具[13](如女孩的娃娃和绘画,男孩的工具和粗糙的住房),[16]尽管他们尚未完全理解性别的含义。[15]三岁以后,核心的性别认同改变是非常困难的,[17]并且尝试改变性别认同会导致性别不安。[13][18]性别认同的固化持续到四岁[17]至六岁[13][19],并持续到青春期。[17]
Martin和Ruble将这一发展过程概念化为三个阶段:(1)作为幼儿和学龄前儿童,儿童学习既定的性别社会化特征。(2)年龄在5-7岁左右,性别认同得到巩固并变得僵化。(3)在这种“僵化高峰”之后,流动性回归,社会定义的性别角色的认知有所缓和些。[20]Barbara Newmann将其分为四个部分:(1)理解性别概念。(2)学习性别角色标准和刻板印象。(3)与父母一起认同。(4)形成性别偏好。[15]
据联合国的机构称,有关全方位性教育的讨论提高了人们对性别和性别认同等主题的认识。[21]
影响形成的因素
先天与后天
虽然对性别认同的形成尚未完全理解,但已提出许多因素被认为影响其发展。特别是,社会化(环境因素)与先天(生物)因素决定性别认同的程度是心理学中持续存在的争论,被称为“先天与后天”。这两个因素都被认为对性别认同起了影响。影响个体性别认同的生物因素包括产前和产后激素水平。[22]虽然基因的构成也会影响性别认同,[23]但它并不会对其产生一成不变的影响。[24]
可能影响性别认同的社会因素包括家庭、权威人物、大众媒体以及其他在儿童生活中有影响力的人所传达对性别角色观念。[25]当孩子由某个坚持严格性别角色的人士抚养时,他们更有可能以相同的方式行事,将他们的性别认同与相应的刻板印象的性别模式相匹配。[26]语言也发挥著作用,儿童在学习语言的同时,学会区别男性化和女性化特征,并下意识地将自己的行为调整为这些预定的角色。[27]社会学习理论认为,儿童通过观察和模仿与性别相关的行为来进一步发展他们的性别认同,然后因为这种行为受到奖励或惩罚,[28]因此借由模仿和追随周围人们的性别模式来塑造人格。[29]
在早期的性别认同研究中约翰·曼尼起了重要的作用,尽管他使用了“性别角色”一词,而不是性别认同。[30]他不同意前学派的观点,即性别认同完全由生物因素决定。他辩称,婴儿出生时是一张白纸,父母可以决定婴儿的性别。[31]在曼尼看来,如果父母有信心把自己的孩子当作异性抚养,则该孩子会相信自己出生就是那个性别,并采取相对应的行为举止。[32]曼尼相信后天的培养可以凌驾于先天之上。[31]
先天与后天争论中一个众所周知的例子是大卫·利马,也就是所谓的“约翰/琼案例”。利马在婴儿时,经历了一次错误的阉割,失去了他的男性生殖器。心理学家约翰·曼尼说服利马的父母将他当作女孩抚养。利马长大成女孩,穿著女孩衣服,周围都是女孩玩具,但感觉自己不像女孩。在他13岁时试图自杀后,利马被告知他出生时具有男性生殖器,并进行了重建手术。[33]这违背了曼尼的假设,即人类的性别认同或性取向与生物因素无关。[34]
生物因素
一些产前生物因素,包括基因和激素,可能会影响性别认同。[22][35]
双性人
在1955到2000年的研究文献进行的一项调查显示,每100个人中至少一个人可能有一些双性人特征。[36]根据联合国人权事务高级专员办事处的说法,人类或其他动物的性别特征包括染色体、性腺、性激素或生殖器的变异导致“不符合男性或女性身体的典型二元概念”。[37]双性人的变异可能使婴儿时期的性别指定复杂化,[38]并且该指定可能与孩子未来的性别认同不一致。[39]人们通常认为通过性别指定手术或荷尔蒙治疗的干预来强化性别指定会侵犯个人的人权。[40][41]
2005年对以女性身份被抚养长大的双性人,出生时XY染色体、阴茎发育不全、膀胱泄漏性外翻及阴茎外伤,的性别认同研究,结果发现78%的研究对象以女性身份生活,而22%的人决定根据其遗传染色体为男性而进行性别转换。[42]这项研究的结论是:“研究结果清楚地表明,在婴儿或幼儿期性别被指定为女性后,后来患者决定性别重新指定成男性的几率增加,但与产前接受雄激素就完全确定核心性别认同的概念不相符。”
一份2012年的临床回顾报告发现,有8.5%至20%的双性人经历过性别不安。[43]澳大利亚是承认第三性别选项的国家,社会学研究表明,在出生时具有非典型性别特征的人当中有19%选择了“X”或“其他”选项,而其他有52%选择女性,23%选择男性,6%为不确定。研究中有52%的人在出生时被指定女性,有41%出生时被指定男性。[44][45]
跨性别
决定性别的激素是在胎儿发育的早期阶段产生的。[46]如果产前激素的水平发生改变,性表型的发展也可能发生改变,大脑对一种性别的自然倾向可能与婴儿外部性器官的遗传构成不一致。[来源请求][47]
激素可能影响男性和女性的言语和空间能力、记忆力和攻击性之间的差异。产前激素的暴露影响下视丘调节生命青春期的激素分泌,如女性的性激素通常在月经周期后产生,而男性的性激素不遵循这种模式。[48]
社会和环境因素
社会科学家倾向于认为性别认同是由社会因素引起的。[49]1955年,约翰·曼尼提出性别认同具有可塑性,并取决于儿童在幼儿时期被当作男性还是女性来抚养。[50][51]曼尼的假设从此遭到质疑,[51][52]但学者们继续研究社会因素对性别认同形成的影响。[51]在1960年至1970年,像是从小父亲的缺席、母亲对女儿的期望或父母的强化教育方式等因素都会被认为对性别认同的形成产生影响。最近的一些理论认为,父母的精神病理问题可能会部分影响性别认同的形成,但仅得到了极少的经验证据。[51]2004年的一篇文章指出“缺乏对出生后社会因素的重要性确凿证据”。[53]2008年的一项研究发现,除了母亲有轻度抑郁症之外,性别不安儿童的父母没有表现出任何精神病理问题的迹象。[51][54]
有人认为,尽管证据很少,但儿童父母的态度可能会影响儿童的性别认同。[55]
非常规性别与跨性别
性别认同可能导致不适合二元性别范畴的人士的安全问题。[56]在某些情况下,一个人的性别认同与其外显生物性别特征(生殖器和第二性征)不一致,导致个人穿著或行为的方式被他人视为局外性别文化形式。这些性别表现可以被描述为非常规性别、跨性别或性别酷儿(也就是说明那些违抗传统性别身份的新兴词汇)。[57][58]并且有这种性别表现的人可能经历性别不安(传统上称为性别认同障碍或GID)。跨性别者在性别转换之前,之间和之后往往受到语言和性别代词的极大影响。[59]
近几十年来,通过性别重置手术重新指定性别已成为可能。一些经历性别不安的人寻求这样的医疗处置,使他们的生理性别与他们的性别认同相匹配;其他人则保留他们出生时的生殖器(出于某些可能的原因,请参见变性),但采取与其性别认同一致的性别角色。
参见
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