亞裔美國人軍事史
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亞裔美國人軍事史最早可以追溯至1812年戰爭(第二次獨立戰爭)時期,當時就有亞裔士兵加入美國軍隊與英國軍隊作戰[1]。在後來的南北戰爭期間,聯邦軍(北軍)和邦聯軍(南軍)兩方皆有亞裔軍人參戰的記錄[1][2][3]。在此之後,亞裔美國人主要在美國海軍服役直到美菲戰爭[4]。
到了20世紀初,亞裔美國人開始進入西點軍校等聯邦軍事院校。同一時期,也產生了第一位獲得代表美國最高軍事榮譽——榮譽勳章的亞裔美國軍人[5][6]。 第一次世界大戰中,亞裔等非白人族群在國民軍(National Army)中服役[7]。一戰以後,亞裔軍人陷入默默無聞的低潮,直到第二次世界大戰,湧現出諸多日裔[8][9]、華裔[10]、菲裔[11]、韓裔[12]等在戰爭中做出巨大貢獻的亞裔美軍軍人。
根據1948年杜魯門總統頒布的9981號行政命令廢止了軍隊中的種族隔離制度,如陸軍442步兵團等一些由亞裔編成的部隊均取消編制,士兵分配至其他單位[13]。在韓戰和越戰中又出現了數位獲得榮譽勳章的亞裔美國軍人。此後,亞裔美國人繼續在軍隊中服役,直至今日[14][15]。
歷史
十九世紀
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早在獨立戰爭期間就有菲律賓裔美國海兵服役的傳聞軼事[2]。然而,官方文件記載中第一次出現亞裔士兵是在1815年1812年戰爭期間[1],後來擔任第七任美國總統的安德魯·傑克遜少將記錄自己的部屬吉恩·拉菲特的麾下有「馬尼拉人(Manilamen)」參與了紐奧良之戰[1]。戰爭結束後,至少有一位叫做奧古斯汀·菲利奇亞諾(Augustin Feliciano)的菲裔軍人繼續在美國海軍服役[16]。在此之後,亞裔美國人再度出現在美國軍事史是在1861年——南北戰爭期間,一位名叫約翰·湯姆尼(John Tomney)的華裔美國人在聯邦軍的紐約州步兵團服役[3],他在蓋茨堡戰役傷重陣亡[17][18]。
還有一位更名為約瑟夫·皮爾斯的華裔美國人,一般認為他由身為康乃狄克號船長的養父阿莫斯·派克(Amos Peck)由中國帶來[19]。皮爾斯於1862年7月26日從軍,分配到第14康乃狄克州步兵團F連,隸屬於波多馬克軍團[20]。從1862年到1865年,皮爾斯參與了安提耶坦之戰、蓋茨堡戰役直到最後李將軍投降於阿波馬托克斯法院的所有關鍵性戰役[21]。皮爾斯在戰爭中升任下士,是為當時聯邦軍所有華裔美國人中軍階最高者[22],他的照片成為葛底斯堡博物館館藏[23]。2007年,美國眾議院通過一項決議,表彰了皮爾斯和其他亞太裔軍人在南北戰爭中的表現[24]。
威廉·韓亞(William Ah Hang)則成為了第一位在美國海軍服役的華裔,他於1863年從軍[3]。據統計,在南北戰爭期間,總共有不少於50名華裔軍人分別效命於聯邦軍和邦聯軍[1]。在他們之中,只有少數人取得了撫恤金、福利和入籍等待遇。其中有位叫做李清(Ching Lee),別名為托馬斯·西爾瓦努斯(Thomas Sylvanus)的人是個例外,他曾在第81賓夕法尼亞州步兵團服役(81st Pennsylvania Regiment)[25]。
南北戰爭期間,路易斯安那有許多菲裔加入邦聯軍[2],其中有一位服役於阿拉巴馬號戰艦[26],還有一部分人成為了路易斯安那義勇軍[27]。在北方,一名叫做菲利克斯·鮑德利(Felix Cornelius Balderry)的菲裔則加入了聯邦軍第11密西根志願步兵團[28]。
在南北戰爭末期直至美西戰爭這段時間鮮有亞裔服役之記錄,直到緬因號戰艦沉沒於古巴哈瓦那灣,傷亡報告顯示有7名日裔和1名華裔[4][29]。在隨後的美菲戰爭中,有7名日裔海兵在美國戰艦上服役,並參與了馬尼拉灣海戰[17]。
二十世紀
美菲戰爭
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1901年,美國陸軍組建菲律賓保安部隊[30]和菲律賓偵查軍[31]兩支菲裔戰鬥部隊作為進攻菲律賓第一共和國的武裝力量的組成部分,並在占領菲律賓後負責鎮壓叛亂。同年,麥金萊總統發布行政命令允許美國海軍招收500名菲律賓士兵[32]。在這中間,就包括了第一位獲得榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人——二等兵何塞·尼斯佩洛斯。他是一名菲律賓偵查軍成員,在莫羅暴亂中保護了他的同僚們,因此在1911年獲頒榮譽勳章[5]。 1915年,海軍士兵特雷斯弗羅·特立尼達和他的長官羅伯特·凱里少尉因在聖地牙哥號戰艦的鍋爐發生爆炸後拯救同僚們的英勇行為獲授榮譽勳章[33]。目前為止,特立尼達仍是唯一一位獲得海軍榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人[34]。
早期的亞裔軍校學員
在1860年代晚期就有亞洲人錄取進入美國海軍學院,出身該校1873年班的日本留學生,後為華族的松村淳藏男爵是該校第一位亞洲畢業生[35][36]。作為外國人的松村和多數來美國的留學生一樣,畢業後選擇回到自己的國家服役[35]。大約四十年以後,第一批亞裔才追隨亞洲人前輩進入了美國聯邦級別的軍事院校。出身美屬菲律賓的華裔學員文森特·林就是他們中的一員。林是西點軍校1914屆畢業生,畢業後在菲律賓偵查軍中擔任少尉[6][37]。他是第一位少數錄取進入西點軍校的美屬菲律賓人,在當時一個班裡只能有1位菲律賓人,且最多只能有4人[6][38]。從1916年起,美國海軍學院也開始招收美屬菲律賓人,第一批軍校生在1919年入校學習[35]。這些畢業生在1935年菲律賓自治時失去了美國國民(United States nationals)之身份,他們中的許多人選擇在菲律賓軍中繼續服役[39]
美墨邊境戰爭
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二十世紀初,當其他國家沉浸在第一次世界大戰的硝煙瀰漫中時,美國把眼光投向了自己在南邊的鄰居——墨西哥。從1910年起,墨西哥捲入了長達十年的內戰。1916年,當時割據墨國北方的梟雄龐丘·維拉襲擊了美國邊境城鎮哥倫布,殺死18名美國人,其中包括10名平民[40],引發了美墨邊境戰爭,擔任美軍統帥的是潘興少將[41]。當時,有為數不少的墨西哥華人冒著被龐丘·維拉處以絞刑的危險選擇在戰爭中協助美軍直到1917年戰爭結束。戰爭結束後,儘管當時美國政府執行排華法案,但潘興等人通過遊說國會獲得特別許可,將總共527位華人帶回美國重新安置,他們大多數定居在聖安東尼奧,後世稱之「潘興華人」(Pershing's Chinese)[42]。
第一次世界大戰
1917年4月6日,美國加入協約國一方對德意志帝國宣戰,正式介入第一次世界大戰[43]。當時的美屬菲律賓成立了國民警衛隊響應宣戰,但並未出現在實戰之中[44]。部隊於1918年解散[45]。在美國國內,曾有一項計劃徵召拉美裔、原住民和亞裔來填補國民軍中的白人兵額,儘管他們中的大多數並未出現在實戰之中[7],但也有少數人參與到實戰當中,這裡面包括了二等兵托馬斯·克勞迪奧(Tomas Mateo Claudio),他是內華達大學的學生,也是第一位和唯一一位陣亡的菲裔美國軍人。他在1918年陣亡於蒂耶里堡之戰[46]。二等兵亨利·陳(Henry Chinn)則陣亡於阿爾貢森林[47],一位叫做興(Sing Kee)的華裔士官在該系列戰役中獲得了美國陸軍第二高榮銜——傑出服役十字勳章,一戰中著名的電影《迷路的大軍》(The Lost Battalion)便有劇情是取材於該階段的戰鬥[48]。還有一位名叫西村德太郎(Tokutaro Nishimura Slocum)的日裔軍士長在82步兵師第328步兵團服役[49]。在海軍方面,戰爭結束時僅菲裔士兵就有不少於5700人[50]。總的來說,在一戰中,數以千計的華裔、日裔、韓裔、越裔和菲裔加入了美軍[51],他們在戰後衝破重重法律阻隔,獲准成為歸化美國公民[52][49][53]。
戰間期
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在戰間期,美軍參與了幾次小規模的軍事行動,包括參與協約國武裝干涉俄國內戰、對中北美及加勒比海地區用兵的香蕉戰爭,此外美國長達近百年的揚子江巡航也直接或間接受到日本侵華的波及。在1918年至1933年間,至少3900名菲裔士兵在美國海軍中服役,從事炊事兵的工作,替代了原崗位中一大部分黑人炊事兵[54]。直到一戰爆發,才准許菲裔海軍士兵從事其他軍職,然而在一戰之後又限制了菲裔從事軍官侍從和廚師的工作[55]。
1934年,鍾雲成為了第一位擁有美國公民身份的亞裔海軍學院畢業生[35],第一位擁有美國公民身份的亞裔西點軍校畢業生則為洪榮福(Wing Fook Jung),他畢業於1940年[56]。在1940年代,日裔是數量最龐大的亞裔美國人族群,其餘依次為華裔、菲裔、印度裔和韓裔[57]。
1939年9月,德國入侵波蘭打破了歐洲的寧靜[58]。當時美國尚且對此保持中立,但是美國人在宣戰前還是在某種程度上參與到了戰爭當中,比如援華的飛虎隊和英國皇家空軍的雄鷹中隊[59]。美軍還根據「現購自運」(cash and carry)政策向他國提供後勤支援,並承諾在大西洋上給以護航[60]。1941年末,日本對珍珠港的襲擊,美國正式對軸心國宣戰[61]。從那時起,亞裔美國人便參與到了這場戰鬥中來。包括日裔在內的許多亞裔美國人,在夏威夷前線瓦胡島等地,對美軍給以援助[62]。在地球的另一端,菲律賓自治領也在美軍的指揮下,開始針對日本的入侵進行防禦[63]。
第二次世界大戰
日裔
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隨著珍珠港遭到襲擊,包含眾多日裔軍人的夏威夷國民警衛隊轉入現役,開始從事駐守沙灘、清理碎石、獻血和幫助傷員等工作。但是三天之後,這些日裔士兵因為他們血統的緣故被繳械,儘管繳械後的次日,他們又獲准重新武裝,但一種緊張和不安的情緒一直持續到1942年6月5日[64]。與此同時,1942年1月19日,在夏威夷大學後備軍官訓練團受訓的軍校生們[65]和在夏威夷國民警衛隊服役的日裔軍人[66]強制退伍[67]。許多退伍的日裔軍人於2月份組成了美國陸軍工兵部隊的一個輔助機構——「大學勝利志願團」[68]。 1942年6月5日,1400名日裔夏威夷國民兵分發到奧克蘭,上岸後,他們組建成第100步兵營——一支後來在戰鬥中屢建功勳的日裔部隊[69]。隨後,除了已從軍的日裔人士之外,所有日裔平民全經政府認定為「敵對外國人」(enemy aliens),直到1943年這項政策才獲得改變[8]。
8個月之後,軍方做出了成立全日裔團級軍事單位的決定,這就是後來著名的第442步兵團。 一開始,整個過程進行緩慢,又過了四個月時間,第442步兵團才開始訓練,再兩個月之後,第100步兵營率先開赴歐洲戰場[70]。起初,駐歐盟軍總司令艾森豪將軍的參謀團否決任用日裔軍人的提案,但最終由克拉克中將接收,編隸於第五軍團旗下[8]。當第442團還在美國訓練之時,第100步兵營正在歐洲戰場上蒙受重大損失,他們因此獲得了「紫心營」(Purple Heart Battalion)的稱號[71]。1944年6月26日,在442步兵團到達歐洲戰場兩星期後,軍方將第100步兵營併入第442步兵團,但100步兵營的戰士們希望能夠保持該營現有番號,因此將第442步兵團下轄的原第1營替代。根據當時的政策,軍中亦實行種族隔離,所以重組後的第442步兵團突顯日裔特色[72],而在此之前,第442步兵團的士兵來自美國本土的日裔美國人集中營,軍官則大多數為白人[73]。 該團在以後的作戰中功勳卓著,成為歐洲戰場中最功勳彪炳的部隊之一[70],他們在義大利、法國、德國參與了多場軍事行動, 其中包括了解放達豪集中營[74]。
此外,加入了美軍情報部隊的日裔軍人在太平洋前線也做出了自己的貢獻,他們幫助破譯日軍情報,並在戰後赴盟軍接管的日本協助佔領工作[75]。第一位在情報單位服役的亞裔女性是通過加入陸軍女性部隊這一途徑進入的[76]。還有一批來自第442步兵團的志願者中選進入戰略情報局,隨後派往中緬印戰區工作,在那裡,他們從事潛伏、翻譯、審問和信號情報等活動[77]。超過33000名日裔美國人在二戰中參軍[8],當他們復員回家時,日裔軍人發現社會上對他們的偏見依然存在[8]。
1946年,第442團戰士旨森貞雄因其先前在義大利軍事行動中的卓越表現而追授榮譽勳章,他是僅有兩位陣亡後不久即獲追授榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人之一,也是唯一的一位日裔[78]。直到2000年,經過對前第442步兵團老兵功勳的重審後,增授21位日裔老兵榮譽勳章[79]。其中包括了原美國陸軍上尉,時任國會參議員的丹尼爾·井上[62]。2010年10月5日,國會製作了國會金質勳章(Congressional Gold Medal)用來表彰第442步兵團戰鬥部隊和第100步兵營,還包括了二戰時期在情報機構服役的6000名日裔老兵[80]
華裔
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二戰期間,大約有12000[81]華裔在美軍中服役,這約占當時全部華裔美國人口的22%[10],他們中的40%沒有美國國籍[1]。與日裔和菲裔不同,75%的華裔軍人在非種族隔離的單位服役[1]。華裔美國人將自己與日裔區分開來,因此遭受到較少的種族歧視[82]。四分之一的華裔軍人在美國陸軍航空軍服役, 他們中的一些人調至中緬印戰區的第14空勤大隊(14th Air Service Group)[83]和中美混合團[84]。剩下的約70%華裔軍人分別在第3、4、6、32和77步兵師服役[10]。海軍方面則在戰前就開始招收華裔美國人入伍,但工作僅限於炊事兵[84],直到1942年5月才停止這項限制[84]。1943年,陸軍女性部隊開始招收華裔女性進入情報部門[76]。美國陸軍航空軍也開始招收華裔女性,其中的一小部分在後來以平民身份組成了女性航空軍飛行員(Women Airforce Service Pilots)[76]。
1944年末,第34步兵團的法蘭西斯·魏上尉因雷伊泰島之戰追授傑出服役十字勳章,這項榮譽在2000年的重審中升格為榮譽勳章[83]。威爾伯·施(Wilbur Carl Sze)則成為了第一位華裔海軍陸戰隊軍官[85]。
菲裔
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菲律賓作為二戰中亞洲戰場的前線,在偷襲珍珠港後不久便遭到了日軍攻擊。當時鎮守菲律賓自治領的統帥是麥克阿瑟將軍,他最初計劃死守菲律賓[86],但隨著日軍登陸呂宋, 美軍緊急啟動橘色戰爭計畫,匆忙退往巴丹半島[87],以阻拒日軍進駐馬尼拉灣[88]。1942年3月,羅斯福總統將麥克阿瑟調離菲律賓[89]。同年4月,第二軍團司令官愛德華·金少將因無法組織起有效的防禦,向日軍投降[90],75000名士兵成為戰俘,其中63000人為菲律賓人[91],包括數千菲律賓華人[92]。他們被強令步行至聖費爾南多,這就是後世所稱的「巴丹死亡行軍」,大約5000到10000名菲律賓戰俘死於途中[93]。繼續在科雷希多島山區進行抵抗的少數參與部隊隨著日軍進攻科雷希多島也徹底土崩瓦解。是年5月,美軍駐菲總司令官喬納森·溫萊特中將向日軍投降[94]。在降將之中,有23名西點軍校畢業的菲律賓軍官,日軍將其中的6人處決,這裡面包括了前章節所敘述的菲律賓華裔軍校生文森特·林,他畢業後在美國陸軍的菲律賓偵查軍服役,官至中校,菲律賓自治後又在菲律賓陸軍中升至准將[95]。
在美國國內,菲裔起初是被禁止入伍的,這一項法案直到日本入侵菲律賓的前一日才得到修正[96]。一些菲裔在非種族隔離的部隊中服役[97],其他人則編組為一個菲裔步兵營。當加入人數的不斷增多達到頂點之時,軍方將其一分為二,是為美國陸軍第1和第2菲裔步兵團(Filipino Infantry Regiment)[98]。這些士兵在比爾基地(Camp Beale)和奧爾德堡(Fort Ord)受訓時遭受到了種族歧視,有時在外出的時候還會被誤認為是日裔[99]。儘管如此,菲裔部隊就像日裔的第442步兵團一樣戰功彪炳,雖然他們的功績並不像442團一樣完善記錄下來,廣為人知[4][100]。在戰爭結束時,這兩支菲裔部隊的軍人共得到了多達50,000份的獎章、獎勵、勳章、勛表、證書、獎狀和褒揚,這些榮譽來自他們在新幾內亞戰役和菲律賓戰役的出色表現[101]。
美軍在菲律賓投降後,仍然有小股的軍人不願投降,他們採用游擊戰的方式抗擊駐菲日軍。成員有獲釋的戰俘、菲律賓平民和盟軍其他部分中不願投降的散兵游勇[102]。1944年,由麥克阿瑟率領的同盟國大軍在雷伊泰島戰役重返菲律賓,這裡面包括了裁員後的菲裔步兵單位[103]。 同年年末,菲律賓步兵師重新組建[104]。這些軍人中被選派留守菲律賓者在1945年二戰勝利後就地改編為菲律賓自治領陸軍[98]。在二戰中,總共有約142000菲律賓人參軍[11][105]。如果再算上游擊隊伍[106],這個數字約為250,000[107],甚至最多可達400,000人[108]。
何塞·卡魯加斯中士是二戰中第一位獲得榮譽勳章的軍人,也是所有亞裔中第三位獲得該項榮譽之人[109],他在菲律賓收復後才獲頒這項殊榮[110]。2000年,在亞裔老兵功勳的重審中,魯道夫·達維拉中尉在二戰中獲得的傑出服役十字勳章升格為榮譽勳章[111]。萊昂·潘薩朗(Leon Punsalang)中校則在幾內亞戰役中成為首位統領白人部隊的亞裔軍官[98][112]。 此外,兩位菲裔女性古雷羅(Josefina Guerrero)和芬奇(Florence Finch)因在戰爭中幫助盟軍戰俘而獲頒總統自由勳章[76]。芬奇還在後來加入海岸巡防隊女兵預備役部隊[113]。
韓裔
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自從美國與朝鮮王朝於1882年簽署友好通商條約之後,便開始有朝鮮人移民美國[17],直至1910年日韓合併[114]。受日韓合併的影響,在美國參戰初期,韓裔也被當成「敵國之人」對待[114],直至1943年,韓裔才從此稱呼中得到豁免[115]。在二戰中,大約有100名韓裔人士加入美國陸軍[12],他們中的一部分人從事翻譯工作[116]。還有超過100人選擇在洛杉磯加入加州國民警衛隊,由他們所組成的單位後來稱作「猛虎軍」(Tiger Brigade,맹호군)[117]。後來升至上校的金永玉是二戰韓裔軍人中的知名人士之一。他最初曾在選兵時被美國陸軍拒絕,入伍後在工兵部隊服役直至1943年經選拔成為軍官,他大部分時間都在日裔第442團服役[118]。金永玉在安濟奧之戰中獲得了傑出服役十字勳章[119],是二戰期間唯一獲此殊榮的韓裔美國人[120],他在先前的戰役中還獲得了銀星勳章和紫心勳章[119]。還有位名叫弗雷德·吳(Fred Ohr)的韓裔軍人是二戰時期唯一一名韓裔王牌飛行員[121]。他在戰鬥中一共擊落過6架敵機,因戰功升任地中海戰區第52戰鬥機大隊第2中隊的中隊長[122]。直至目前為止,他依然是唯一一名獲得王牌飛行員稱號的韓裔美國人[123]。弗雷德在參與的軍事行動中獲得了諸多榮譽,包括了兩枚銀星勳章[121]。
冷戰
二戰之後
日本投降之後,第二次世界大戰結束,美國開始了裁軍工作,多達數百萬的軍人退伍返鄉,第442步兵團的戰士們也在其列。1946年,杜魯門總統檢閱了第442步兵團,並第七次授予該團總統部隊嘉獎稱號。他們隨後復員,但一年後又召回重組,改編為陸軍預備役部隊[124]。同年,杜魯門簽署了廢除法案 ,取消了承諾給予菲律賓自治領、游擊隊老兵的福利待遇[125]。 經過菲律賓政府的同意,50000名菲律賓偵查軍的士兵經美國國會許可保持建制[126]作為菲律賓步兵師的一部分參與了占領琉球的任務直到1947年解散[127],旋即還被杜魯門視為僱傭兵組織[126]。1948年,杜魯門簽署了9981號行政命令,廢除了軍中的種族隔離制度[128]。
韓戰
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1950年,韓戰爆發。1951年,多數亞裔軍事單位因軍中種族隔離制度的廢除而解散,士兵重新分配至其他部隊;不過也有少數像第100步兵營、第442步兵團和第5步兵團戰鬥單位繼續維持傳統,大宗兵力仍由亞裔軍人組成[13]。韓戰中亞裔軍人的具體參戰人數目前尚無定論[13][129],陣亡者則一共有241人[130]。
在第7步兵團服役的浩·宮村是韓戰中唯一獲得榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人[131]。決定授予其這項殊榮的時候,宮村尚在朝鮮半島做戰俘,為避免其因此遭受迫害,此事在當時列為最高機密。直至1953年宮村獲釋回國後,才由艾森豪總統正式授予榮譽勳章[132]。美籍華裔呂氏三兄弟,呂超然(Kurt Chew-Een Lee,首位美籍華裔海軍陸戰隊常備役軍官)、呂超民(Chew-Mon Lee,陸軍步兵軍官、後於台灣任美國駐中華民國上校武官)、呂超凡(音譯;Chew-Fan Lee,陸軍醫官)分別在戰爭中獲得了海軍十字勳章、傑出服役十字勳章、銅星勳章等殊榮[133]。上文提到的韓裔二戰參戰軍官金永玉在韓戰爆發後重新入伍,升任少校,並成為第31步兵團的第一位少數族裔指揮官[134]。1927年入伍的二戰軍官沃爾特·塚本(Walter Tsukamoto)於1950年升任中校,是當時亞裔陸軍軍法官中軍階最高之人。他在第10軍擔任軍法官,在韓戰期間獲得了兩枚銅星勳章[135]。
越南戰爭
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越戰期間,有35,000名亞裔軍人派駐南越[136],他們均在完全未實施種族分離的部隊中服役[4]。在這場戰爭中有三位追授榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人,其中包括羅德尼·矢野,他是目前為止最後一位獲贈榮譽勳章的亞裔軍人。此外還有泰瑞·河村下士和埃爾梅林多·史密斯下士。亞裔軍人除了在常規軍中服役外,陸軍還組織了一個叫做「夏威夷之隊」(Team Hawaii)的特種部隊,由華裔、菲裔、日裔和美洲原住民遊騎兵組成。他們的任務是假扮越南人進行大範圍偵查[137]。種族歧視的氛圍仍然伴隨著亞裔軍人,他們的忠誠度仍然面臨懷疑[136]。在新兵訓練中,有時將他們描述為和越共相似的人[138],有時則直接被誤認,這種情形甚至曾導致亞裔軍人在實戰中遭到友軍誤擊[139]和亞裔傷兵救治延誤的情況[140]。另一方面,越共重點打擊亞裔軍人,時而懸賞購買亞裔軍人的性命[137]。與人數比例相應,亞裔軍人在越戰美軍中所有種族裡傷亡最小[141],共139人戰死沙場[130][142]。
海軍方面針對菲裔士兵的職業限制在1973年得到了改變[143]。經過國會對海軍內部人權問題進行調查後,廢除了該限制,所有職業均對菲裔開放[144]。
在美軍之外,還有一些當時或後來加入美國國籍的其他族群曾在越戰中給美軍提供了一定協助。這裡面包括了苗族、佬族,他們站在美國一方參與了寮國內戰;還有加入南越政府軍作戰的越裔美國人和那些給予美軍幫助的越南山地族群。[145]
波斯灣戰爭
1989年時,亞裔美軍官兵的大約占去陸海空三軍總人數的2.3%,略高於亞裔美國人占當時美國總人口的比例(1.6%)[146]。在波斯灣戰爭從軍服役期間,一些亞裔軍人已經升到了高級軍官的位置[147]。這其中包括了陳紹章陸軍少將及傅履仁陸軍少將,前者於該年晉升為美國陸海空各軍第一位華裔二星少將[148],後者亦於該年升任美國陸軍軍法署署長[149]。在這場戰爭中,共有一名亞裔軍人陣亡[142]。1992年,隨著美菲於1947年簽署的《軍事基地協議》到期,美國海軍停止招收菲律賓國民入伍[150]。
二十一世紀
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最近的趨勢顯示亞裔美國人,尤其是來自加州者,從軍率高於亞裔人口在美國所占比例,他們通常會選擇一些非戰鬥類型的職業[151]。2009年,亞裔在美國陸軍中軍官所占比例為4.4%,士兵比例為3.5%[15]。2010年,亞裔在現役部隊中占3.7%,他們大多數在陸軍和海軍服役,現役軍官的比例為3.9%[152]。2012年,共有65000名移民在美軍中效力,其中23%來自菲律賓[153]。截至2013年1月24日[update],在新世紀的反恐戰爭中陣亡的2165位軍人中,有58人是亞裔(44名來自陸軍、8名來自海軍陸戰隊和6名來自海軍)[154] ,另有352亞裔軍人負傷(274名來自陸軍、56名來自海軍陸戰隊、17名來自海軍、5名來自空軍)[155]。
阿富汗戰爭
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2001年,亞裔海軍陸戰隊員是進攻阿富汗的美軍先鋒的組成部分之一[156]。2005年,在「紅翼行動」中,海豹部隊中士詹姆斯·蘇(James Suh)在所乘的CH-47直升機遭RPG擊中後當場陣亡[157],這一幕後來也成為了回憶錄和同名電影《紅翼行動》中的一部分事跡[157]。
伊拉克戰爭
2009年5月的數據顯示,在59000名駐伊美軍之中有數以百計的亞裔士兵[158],一向研究表明他們約占總數的2.6%[159]。2004年,已改為陸軍預備役的原日裔部隊——第100步兵營再度轉為現役並派赴伊拉克[160],這是該部隊自越戰以來首次出現在戰場上[161]。在派駐期結束時,部隊獲准使用第442步兵團的標誌,這也是該單位袖章自二戰後首次投入使用[162] 。2008年至2009年期間,第100步兵營再度轉為現役部隊派駐伊拉克[163]。在新一輪的行動中,有82名亞裔軍人陣亡[164]。
領導人物
第一位晉陞將官的亞裔美國人是母系擁有部分華人血統的萊曼准將(Brigadier General Albert Lyman)[165]。在他之後的鍾雲少將成為了美國海軍第一位亞裔將官[166] 。亞裔軍人所獲軍階中等級最高者是第34任美國陸軍參謀長艾力·新關將軍,他與哈里·B·哈里斯為目前僅有的美軍亞裔四星上將[167]。
近年來,亞裔美國軍校學員在聯邦級別軍事院校中的比例已顯著超出亞裔在美國所占人口比例。儘管18到24歲之間的亞太裔美國人只占這個年齡段總人口的3.49%[168],但他們在西點軍校、海軍學院和空軍學院2014屆的學員中所占比例達10%左右[169][170][171]。
相關作品
另見
參考文獻
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He shows that while the Dawes Act and Alien Land Laws explicitly barred non-whites – Native Americans and Asians rather than 『coloreds』 (African Americans) – from the ownership of land, the San Diego draft still included 『American Indians, Japanese Americans, Chinese Americans and Mexican Americans』, all called as part of the 『「white」 quota』. Perhaps unsurprisingly none of these groups ever saw combat, but at least for the Native Americans it contributed to their gaining of citizenship, en masse, in 1924.
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Vietnam War Recipients. Asian Pacific Americans in the United States Army. United States Army. [2013-01-22]. (原始內容存檔於2012-10-15). - ^ 15.0 15.1 Dr. Betty D. Maxfield. FY09 Army Profile (PDF). Headquarters, Department of the Army. United States Army. 2009-09-30 [2011-04-27]. (原始內容 (PDF)存檔於2010-12-18).
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21-1861 Chinese American John Tomney joins New York Infantry, later dies of wounds at Battle of Gettysburg (1863).
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Among the killed at Gettysburgh was a young; Chinaman, known as JOHN TOMMY.
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Filled with photos and mini-essays, including old newspaper documents, it chronicles the roles of influential Filipino-Americans, from San Francisco Giants pitcher Tim Lincecum to Felix Cornelius Balderry, a Union soldier in the Civil War.
Dempsey, Jack. Michigan and the Civil War: A Great and Bloody Sacrifice. Charleston, SC: The History Press. 2011: 88 [2011-05-19]. ISBN 978-1-60949-173-4. (原始內容存檔於2014-06-27). - ^ VADM J.C. Harvey Jr. RAAUZYUW RUENAAA7101 1082000-UUUU—RUCRNAD. United States Navy. 2007-04-18 [2011-05-29]. (原始內容存檔於2019-02-22).
Seven first-generation Japanese Americans and one Chinese American where killed when the U.S.S. Main was sunk in Havana Harbor in 1898.
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For the purposes of the Immigration Act of 1917, the Immigration Act of 1924 [except section 13 (c)], this section, and all other laws of the United States relating to the immigration, exclusion, or expulsion of aliens, citizens of the Philippine Islands who are not citizens of the United States shall be considered as if they were aliens. For such purposes the Philippine Islands shall be considered as a separate country and shall have for each fiscal year a quota of fifty.
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Sing Kee would reeive the Distinguished Service Cross and be promoted to color sergeant, the highest rank attained by a Chinese-American in the AEF.
Nancy Wey. Quarantine And Its Aftereffects. Five Views: An Ethnic Historic Site Survey for California. National Park Service. 2004-11-17 [2013-02-26]. (原始內容存檔於2019-05-13).On June 13, 1919, Sing Kee returned home to San Jose after receiving the Distinguished Service Cross for bravery in action with the 77th or "Liberty" Division in the Argonne Forest.
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in spite of these acts of loyalty and courage, the U.S. Army discharged all Nisei in the ROTC unit, changed their draft status to ineligible, and segregated all Japanese Americans in the military on the mainland out of their units.
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In the hours following the bombing, all UH ROTC cadets were told to report to duty, forming the Hawai『i Territorial Guard (HTG), which was assigned to guard military installations on O『ahu. A month later, members who were of Japanese ancestry were expelled from the HTG because of their ethnicity.
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On January 19, 1942, all men of Japanese ancestry in the Hawaii Territorial Guard are discharged.
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Sadao Munemori was the ONLY Japanese-American awarded the Medal of Honor during or immediately after World War II. With prejudice still strong, it required intervention by Congress to at last see him posthumously awarded the Medal of Honor.
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外部連結
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