用戶:CX717/sandbox
和諧式客機 Concorde | |
---|---|
類型 | 超音速客機 |
製造商 | 法國宇航-英國飛機公司 |
首飛 | 1969年3月2日 |
起役日期 | 1976年1月21日 |
退役日期 | 2003年11月26日 |
主要用戶 |
英國航空 法國航空 |
製造數量 | 20[1] |
單位成本 | 1977年時2,600萬英鎊 |
和諧式客機(Concorde)是由法國宇航和英國飛機公司聯合研製的超音速客機,它和圖波列夫製的圖-144是世界上唯一曾投入商業使用的超音速客機。和諧式客機於1969年首飛、1976年投入服務,並於2003年退役。主要用於倫敦希斯路機場(英國航空)和戴高樂國際機場(法國航空)來往紐約甘迺迪國際機場的航班服務。它創下很多記錄,包括於1996年2月7日以2小時52分鐘59秒的時間創下由紐約至倫敦的最快時間。
雖然和諧式客機的高昂研發費用令英法政府損失甚巨,但它卻為英航帶來巨額利潤。英航和法航首班商業航班於1976年1月21日同時啟航,較圖-144S晚一個月左右,但它的飛行生涯遠較圖-144長。隨着2000年發生一宗致命事故,及其後的911事件和其他因素影響令和諧式客機於2003年10月27日終止服務,於同年11月26日飛航「退役」航班後結束其27年的商業飛行生涯。即使退役後,和諧式客機仍然是航空歷史上的重要象徵。
一般特點
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Concorde_g-boab_heathrow.jpg/250px-Concorde_g-boab_heathrow.jpg)
和諧式客機的平均巡航速度達2.02馬赫(每小時2,140公里或1,330英里),最高巡航高度60,000英尺(18,300米)。其三角翼下裝有4具為火神戰略轟炸機(Avro Vulcan)研製的勞斯萊斯奧林匹斯(Olympus)發動機。此發動機由勞斯萊斯和SNECMA聯合研製,為SNECMA提供進入商用噴氣發動機市場的機會。和諧式客機是首種使用模擬電傳操縱的民航客機。為了增加着陸時的能見度而設的可變角度機鼻更成為它的標記。
在定期航班服務中,和諧式客機使用一種較有效率的巡航爬升(cruise-climb)方式。隨着燃油消耗,飛機變得越來越輕因而能夠爬升至更高的高度。這樣的方式(通常)較為有效率,因此傳統民用客機亦會使用類似這種方式爬升,名為階段爬升(step climb)。但傳統民用客機需要得到航空交通管制員許可才能爬升至更高高度。在越大西洋期間,和諧式客機在50,000英尺後已沒有其他民用客機與之共用空層,因此自50,000英尺起和諧式客機能緩慢爬升至60,000英尺。
設計與發展
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Concorde_on_Bristol.jpg/220px-Concorde_on_Bristol.jpg)
50年代末,英國、法國、美國和蘇聯都計劃研發超音速客機。當時英國的布里斯托飛機公司(Bristol Aeroplane Company)和法國的Sud Aviation分別在設計布里斯托223和超級卡拉維爾(Super-Caravelle),兩家公司都獲得政府巨額資助。[2]英國的設計是一種載客100人並能夠進行越大西洋飛行的超音速客機,而法國設計則是一種中程超音速客機。
60年代初,這兩種設計已經進入建造原型機的階段。但由於投資金融龐大,英國政府遂要求英國飛機公司在國際間尋找合作夥伴。與數個國家(包括德國和美國)商討後,只有法國對合作計劃有興趣。合作計劃並非由兩家公司制定,而是由英法政府以國際條約的方式商議。計劃包括一項由英方提出的條款,如果任何一方取消合作就必須付出賠償金(英國財政部曾經兩次幾乎取消合作計劃)。合作計劃草案於1962年11月28日簽定。此時,布里斯托飛機公司和Sud Aviation已經分別與其他公司合併為英國飛機公司和法國宇航。
起初,雙方有意建造一種長程(6,000公里)和一種中程(4,400公里)的超音速客機。但與各潛在客戶推銷兩種機型後,發現航空公司對中程的超音速客機興趣不大,於是取消中程型號。長程型取得超過100架的訂單,起始客戶包括泛美航空、英國海外航空(BOAC)和法國航空,分別訂購6架和諧式客機。其他訂購航空公司包括Panair do Brasil、日本航空、漢莎航空、美國航空、聯合航空、加拿大航空、Braniff國際航空、伊朗航空、澳洲航空、中國民航、中東航空和環球航空。
和諧式客機起初以法文「Concorde」定名,但英方早期卻稱它為「Concord」,命名問題一直爭辯了數年。直到1967年12月11日命名問題才塵埃落定,首架和諧式客機在圖盧茲出廠,同日英國科技部長東尼·賓特(Tony Benn)宣佈英方亦會稱和諧式客機為「Concorde」。[3]賓特認為「e」可以代表卓越(Excellence)、英格蘭(England)、歐洲(Europe)和摯誠協定(Entente Cordiale)。在其回憶錄中,賓特憶述他當時收到一封由一位蘇格蘭人的信,信中寫道:「你說「e」是代表英格蘭,但和諧式客機有些部份是蘇格蘭製造的!」。賓特在回信中表示:「「e」也可以代表「Ecosse」(法語中蘇格蘭的名稱),但也可以代表揮霍(extravagance)和不斷增加(escalation)!」 [4]
兩架原型機於1965年2月開始建造:001號機由法國宇航在圖盧茲建造,而002號機則由英國飛機公司在布里斯托的菲爾頓(Filton)建造。001號機於1969年3月2日首飛,並於10月1日進行首次超音速飛行。1971年9月4日飛往南美洲進行巡迴展示。002號機亦於1972年6月2日飛往中東、遠東地區和澳洲共12個國家作巡迴展示,總飛行距離達72,500公里[5]。1973年首次飛抵美國,並降落於達拉斯沃斯堡國際機場(Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport),標誌着該機場正式開幕。
這些巡迴展示為和諧式客機帶來超過70架訂單,但一連串因素導致大量訂單被取消。包括1973年石油危機(和諧式客機的耗油量比其他亞音速客機高)、部份訂購和諧式客機的航空公司出現財政問題、圖-144於一次公開場合墜毀和像音爆、起飛噪音、污染等環境問題。只剩下法國航空和英國航空購買,雙方政府都分享部份從營運和諧式客機取得的盈利。以英航為例,和諧式客機是由國家借貸購入,英國政府收回80%和諧式客機取得的盈利,直到1984年才停止。[6]
美國於1971年取消超音速客機的研究計劃。提出了洛歇L-2000和波音2707兩個設計;洛歇L-2000外型像和諧式客機的加大版,但敗給載客300人、可變翼(swing-wing)設計和飛得更快的波音2707。法國和英國的業界觀察員認為,美國人以噪音污染為由反對和諧式客機於其領空飛行某程度上是因為美國政府未能就甘迺迪總統於1963演說中[7] 的承諾,製造出能與和諧式客機競爭的機種而於幕後策劃或鼓勵。其他國家,如馬來西亞亦因嘈音問題禁止和諧式客機以超音速飛越其領空。[18]
踏入1974年後,英航和法航開始運作和諧式客機進行一些展示和試航工作。和諧式客機試飛過程設下很多至今仍然保持的記錄;原型機、預產機(Pre-production)和首架量產機共試飛了5,335小時,當中2,000小時是超音速飛行。超過同等大小的亞音速飛機試飛時間4倍之多。1977年時,和諧式客機單價為2,300萬英鎊。研發成本超資6倍。[8]
技術特點
很多在和諧式客機中首次使用的技術,都常見於21世紀初的民用客機。
高速和優化飛行:
- 雙三角翼
- 勞斯萊斯/SNECMA製附有後燃器的奧林匹斯(Olympus)發動機和可變進氣坡道
- 超音速巡航能力
- 電傳操縱發動機,是今天全權數位電子控制系統(Full Authority Digital Electronic Control)發動機的先驅
- 可下垂式機鼻,以增加着陸時駕駛艙的能見度
減重和提升性能:
- 2.04馬赫的巡航速度帶來最佳的燃油消耗(最低的超音速阻力,雖然渦輪噴氣發動機於高速時性能較佳)
- 主要由鋁合金和以相對傳統的方式建造
- 全權自動駕駛(autopilot)和自動油門(autothrottle),容許飛行員於爬升至着陸期間完全不介入飛行操縱
- 全電子類比電傳操縱飛行控制系統
- 多功能的飛行操縱界面(control surfaces)
- 部件更輕但壓力達28Mpa的高壓液壓系統
- 全電子控制類比電傳制動(brake-by-wire)系統
- 俯仰配平(Pitch trim)以在機身轉移燃料的方式來控制重心(centre-of-gravity)
- 部件以一整塊合金製造成形,以減少零件數量
研製和諧式客機的經驗後來成為了空中巴士的重要基礎。以SNECMA為例,研製和諧式客機使用的奧林匹斯發動機為SNECMA打開了民用發動機研製的大門,及後與通用動力組成CFM國際並生產成功的CFM56系渦扇發動機。
雖然和諧式客機於70年代推出時是一項科技結晶,但30年後它那滿佈傳統儀表和開關的駕駛艙已經變得過時。在沒有競爭者的情況下,和諧式客機無急切需要去提升航電(avionics)和乘客的舒適水平。這個情況與同年代推出的客機(如波音747)相反。
英國飛機公司(後來成為英國宇航)和法國宇航(後來成為歐洲航空防務及航天集團)是和諧式客機型別檢定證(type certificate )的共同持有人,空中巴士集團成立後負責把型別檢定證轉到空中巴士名下。
設計時需克服的主要問題
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f5/2001concordewingduxfordJM.jpg/220px-2001concordewingduxfordJM.jpg)
在研製和諧式客機期間有很多問題需要克服。[9]
壓力中心的轉移
當任何飛機飛越臨界馬赫數(critical mach)時,壓力中心會向後轉移,在重心不變的情況下會為飛機帶來一股下壓力。即使工程師以特殊的方式設計和諧式客機的機翼,壓力中心仍然後移2米。雖然可以利用配平控制(trim controls)來抵銷,但在如此高速的情況下會大幅增加飛機的阻力。因此,和諧式客機會靠轉移機身的燃料來改變重心,成為一種有效的輔助配平控制。
發動機
為了令和諧式客機經濟上可行,它需要飛行一段頗長的距離,這需要一種高效的發動機。最適宜超音速飛行的發動機,需要有較小的橫切面和低旁通比(low bypass ratio)以減低阻力及產生達超音速的排氣速度。渦輪噴氣發動機是符合這些要求的最佳選擇,而性能較佳和較寧靜的高旁通比渦輪扇葉發動機則不適用。被選定的發動機為勞斯萊斯/SNECMA製的雙軸(twin spool)奧林匹斯593發動機。原為火神戰略轟炸機研製,其後再為和諧式客機發展出593型。
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/90/Concordeintake.gif/220px-Concordeintake.gif)
The inlet design for Concorde's engines was especially critical.所有常規噴氣發動機都只能在大概0.5馬赫的速度引入氣流;因此速度達2馬赫的和諧式客機必須減慢進入發動機的氣流速度。In particular, 和諧式客機必須控制減慢氣流速度時所形成的震波(shockwaves)以避免損壞發動機。發動機艙分別有一組坡道(Ramp)和一道溢流門(Spill door)負責這個工作,坡道和溢流門可以在飛行途中移位以減慢氣流速度。坡道位於發動機艙頂部可以向下移動,而溢流門則位於發動機艙下方可以向上下開合控制氣流流入或流出。起飛時發動機進氣需求高,坡道會完全平放於發動機艙頂部,溢流門會向上打開以增加進氣量。當飛機速度到達0.7馬赫時,溢流門會關閉;1.3馬赫時,坡道會開始工作將氣流引導出發動機艙並用於機艙加壓之用。2.0馬赫時,坡道會覆蓋其可觸及範圍的一半,協助壓縮空氣和增加氣流溫度以減輕發動機壓縮段(compressor)的工作壓力。
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Intake_concorde.jpg/220px-Intake_concorde.jpg)
發動機失效會為傳統亞音速客機帶來重大問題;不單單是失去一邊推力而且還會產生很大的阻力,導致飛機向失效發動機的一方傾斜和偏航。如果這個情況於超音速飛行時出現,幾乎可以肯定會對機身造成災難性的損害。發動機失效後進氣道實際上已經毫無作用,所以和諧式客機會將發動機艙溢流門向下打開並將坡道完全展開,將氣流下壓引導流過發動機,產生升力和將發動機流線形化以減低失效發動機產生的阻力。在測試中,和諧式客機可以在2馬赫飛行途中關閉同一方的2具發動機,而不會產生任何操縱問題。 [10]
和諧式客機除了起飛和跨音速(transonic)時使用後燃器外,其餘時段均會關閉。它的發動機在無後燃器的協助下亦能勉強到達2馬赫,但發現由於要用更長時間飛越高阻力的跨音速段,因而需要燃燒更多燃料。
由於渦輪噴氣發動機於低速是效率不佳,和諧式客機在滑行至跑道期間就需要燃燒2公噸燃料。[11] 為了減低燃料銷耗,在降落後只會使用最外部的2具發動機滑行。由於經過長途飛行後,飛機重量已經大大減低,因此2具發動機已經足夠推動和諧式客機。如果和諧式客機在降落後滑行中途耗準燃料的話,飛行員會被解僱。[12]
熱力問題
除了發動機外,全超音速飛機最熱的部份就是機鼻。工程師們因為對(硬鋁)鋁較為熟識,而且其價格低廉、建構容易而獲選定為和諧式客機的主要建造物料。鋁能在飛機壽命中持續抵禦達127℃的高溫,因此和諧式客機的極速被限制於2.02馬赫。
和諧式客機於飛行期間會經歷兩個加熱冷卻的周期,第一次冷卻於爬升時,之後超音速飛行時加熱,最後於下降時再度冷卻。這些因素都必須於冶金塑模時一併考慮。和諧式客機超音速飛行期間,被壓縮的空氣會產生高熱,機身會因此而延長達300毫米。最明顯的證明就是飛航工程師的儀錶板與客艙隔板間的距離會在飛行途中增加。
為了保持機艙涼快,和諧式客機所載的燃油會吸收空氣調節和液壓系統產生的熱力。超音速飛行時,駕駛艙的窗戶會因為太熱而不能觸摸。
和諧式客機於塗裝上亦有所限制;表面只能塗上白色以避免超音速飛行時產生的高熱影響到鋁製結構[13] 。但於1996年時法國航空為了協助百事可樂宣傳,曾把一架登記編號F-BTSD的和諧式客機塗上全藍色(除了機翼)塗裝。這個塗裝的和諧式客機只能以2馬赫飛行大概20分鐘,在1.7馬赫下則未有限制。F-BTSD未有執行任何需要長期以2馬赫飛行的定期航班[14]。
結構問題
和諧式客機高速飛行時,轉向會為飛機結構帶來巨大壓力,導致結構扭曲變形。解決辦法是於高速轉向時,只運作內邊連接在機翼最強部份的升降舵補助翼(elevon),外部的升降舵補助翼則維持不動。
和諧式客機的客艙窗戶非常細小。研究發現若使用大窗戶的和諧式客機於超高空飛行時,窗戶一但破裂的話,機員和乘客會在下降至安全高度前就失去知覺。即使戴上氧氣罩亦不會有任何幫助。因此窗戶需要設計得非常細小,以在緊急下降時壓縮機仍能保持機艙的氣壓。
煞車裝置
由於起飛速度高達每小時250哩(400公里),和諧式客機對煞車裝置的要求較高。是首批使用防鎖煞車系統的煞車裝置,可以防止機輪於鎖車時鎖死,尤其於濕滑地面上能令減速能力有所提升和更易操縱。
碳基(carbon-based)煞車裝置能把重188公噸、時速達190哩(305公里)的和諧式客機於1,600米內煞停。完全停止後,煞車裝置的溫度會達300℃至500℃,需要數小時才能冷卻。
輻射量增加
搭乘和諧式客機的乘客,會因為超高巡航高度而比普通長途客機承受2倍通量的外部電離輻射(ionising radiation)。但由於飛行時間相對減少,在同等飛行距離下當量劑量(equivalent dose)較普通客機為少。[15]. 一些不尋常的太陽活動亦會導致入射輻射的增加,因此駕駛艙裝有一具輻射計和量度輻射減低率的儀器。一旦輻射量過高,和諧式客機會下降47,000英尺以下。量度輻射減低率的儀器讀數會決定是否需要下降到更低高度,減少飛機暴露於危險輻射水平的時間。
可下垂式機鼻
可下垂式機鼻是和諧式客機的外觀特徵之一,既保持着飛機的流線外型減低阻力,又可以於滑行、起飛和着陸時增加駕駛艙的能見度。三角翼飛機起飛和着陸時,攻角較亞音速飛機大。尖銳的機鼻會影響飛行員的視野,因此和諧式客機的機鼻設計成可以外變角度以迎合各種操作需要。機鼻下垂時,透明整流罩會收到機鼻內。當機鼻回復水平時,透明整流罩會升回駕駛艙擋風玻璃前方,令機鼻回復流線外型[19]。而早期和諧式客機原型機的整流罩只有兩扇小窗[20]。
起飛時,駕駛艙內的控制器能控制透明整流罩收到機鼻內和把機鼻角度下調5度。起飛後,透明整流罩和機鼻都會回復原位。降落前,透明整流罩會再次收到機鼻內,而機鼻會下調至12.5度以取得最佳能見度。降落時,機鼻會迅速回復到5度以避免可能導致的損害。[21]在非常罕有的情況下,和諧式客機能把機鼻下調至12.5度起飛。[22]也可以只降下透明整流罩,而機鼻維持水平,但只在清潔擋風玻璃和短時間亞音速飛行時使用。[23]
定期航班
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Concorde.planview.arp.jpg/220px-Concorde.planview.arp.jpg)
和諧式客機的定期航班於1976年1月21日開始營運,分別由倫敦至巴林(英航)和巴黎至里約熱內盧(法航,停經達卡)。當時美國國會禁止和諧式客機在美國着陸,主要因國民抗議超音速造成的音爆。令兩家航空公司覬觀的越大西洋航線未能成事。但美國運輸部長威廉·高文(William Coleman)向和諧式客機發出特別許可,營運前往華盛頓杜勒斯國際機場的航班服務,英航和法航同時於1976年5月24日開始營運前往華盛頓的服務[16]。
美國的禁令於1977年2月撤銷後,紐約市當局又頒佈禁令禁止和諧式客機來訪。1977年10月17日,美國最高法院拒絕推翻聯邦地方法院禁止紐約州和新澤西州港務局([[Port Authority of New York and New Jersey)繼續禁令的判決[17]。巴黎和倫敦來往紐約甘迺迪國際機場的定期航班服務於1977年11月22日開始營運。英航的航班編號為BA001至BA004。
傳統噴射客機由紐約飛往巴黎需時7小時,而和諧式客機只需3小時30分鐘。至2003年,法航和英航仍然每天營運前往紐約的服務。和諧式客機亦會於季假期時飛航往巴巴多斯的服務,也偶然提供包機服務前往芬蘭羅瓦涅米。1986年11月1日,一架提供包機服務的和諧式客機以31小時51分鐘完成環球飛行。
1977年及1979至1980年間,英航和新加坡航空共享來往巴林至新加坡的和諧式客機服務。一架登記編號G-BOAD的和諧式客機左邊機身被塗上新航塗裝,而右邊機身則保留英航塗裝。[18]巴林至新加坡的服務只營運了3班航班便因為馬來西亞當局禁止和諧式客機飛越其領空而暫停。經長時間與馬來西亞政府商討後,巴林至新加坡航線於1979年1月24日恢復,但因載客量不佳而於1980年11月1日停止服務。[19]。1978年9月至1982年11月間,法航曾開辦每周兩班途經華盛頓前往墨西哥城的服務,期間發生的全球經濟危機導致墨西哥城的服務最終被取消。1984年至1991年間,英航開辦每周三班以亞音速由華盛頓飛往邁阿密的服務
1978年到1980年間,Braniff國際航空租借了10架和諧式客機,[20],英航和法航各提供5架。用於來往達拉斯與華盛頓之間的亞音速航班服務,由Braniff國際航空的機員負責飛航,到達華盛頓後由法航和英航的機員接手飛航餘下前往巴黎及倫敦的超音速航程。但來往達拉斯與華盛頓的亞音速航班服務並未能帶來盈利,載客率長期低於50%,因此Braniff國際航空於1980年5月終止該航班服務。
乘客體驗
![](http://images.weserv.nl/?url=//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Concorde_interior2.jpg/220px-Concorde_interior2.jpg)
和諧式客機為乘客帶來的體驗與傳統亞音速客機有很多不同之處。英航與法航的和諧式客機客艙佈局均為單一客艙級別,載客100人;單走道,每行4個坐位。近走道的坐位空間只有僅僅6英呎(1.8米)高,真皮坐椅的空間與大型客機的經濟客艙坐位相若。而由於頂部空間不足,手提行李亦有嚴格限制。
90年代時,波音747的長途航班中,頭等和商務客艙常見的電影娛樂、可調角度的坐椅和步行區域在和諧式客機上均一一欠奉。但和諧式客機相對較短的飛行時間彌補了欠缺上述設備的缺陷。和諧式客機客艙內裝有等離子顯示屏,顯示飛行高度、飛行速度和空氣溫度。客艙服務亦維持着非常高的水平,膳食均由瑋緻活(Wedgwood[21])生產的陶器和銀餐具侍奉。
駕駛員宣佈穿越音障時,只會經過一陣輕微震動後,體驗較想像中平凡。
和諧式客機的巡航高度較傳統客機高出一倍,窗外會呈現出地球的弧度,亂流亦很少出現。超音速巡航期間,雖然機外溫度達-60°,但機身前部出現的空氣壓縮會令機身外部加熱至120°,窗戶亦會變得溫暖,前艙室溫亦較後艙為高。
三角翼亦令它能夠達到較傳統客機更高的攻角,翼面會產生大量低壓渦流,以維持升力。在潮濕的日子,和諧式客機甚至會消失於低壓產生的霧氣中。但這些情況只會於低速時出現,意味着在起飛初段和着陸期間,和諧式客機會經歷一些亂流和振動。
和諧式客機速度飛快,飛行速度加地球自轉速度所產生的離心力在東行時能令機上人員的體重暫時降低百份之一,西行時則增加百份之零點三。[22] 與地心距離增加亦令機上人員體重再減少百份之零的六。
和諧式客機的巡航速度比明暗界線(solar terminator)的極速更快。它能追上和超越地球的自轉。在西行航線上,以當地時間計算,抵達時間往往比起飛時間早。一些由巴黎或倫敦的班機能在日落後起飛,並於中途追上太陽,在駕駛艙中能看到太陽從西邊升起的景像。英航亦以這個情形來宣傳,推出口號「起飛前經已到達」(Arrive before you leave)。
巴黎意外
On 25 July 2000, Air France Flight 4590, registration F-BTSCdisaster, crashed in Gonesse, France, killing all 100 passengers and nine crew on board the flight, and four people on the ground. It was the first fatal incident involving the type.
The crash was caused by a titanium strip, part of a thrust reverser, that fell from a Continental Airlines DC-10 that had taken off about four minutes earlier. This metal fragment punctured Concorde's tyres, which then disintegrated. A piece of rubber hit the fuel tank and broke an electrical cable. The impact caused a shockwave that fractured the fuel tank some distance from the point of impact. This caused a major fuel leak from the tank, which then ignited. The crew shut down engine number 2 in response to a fire warning but were unable to retract the landing gear, hampering the aircraft's climb. With engine number 1 surging and producing little power, the aircraft was unable to gain height or speed, entering a rapid pitch-up then a violent descent, rolling left. The impact occurred with the stricken aircraft tail-low, crashing into the Hotelissimo Hotel in Gonesse. [23]
Prior to the accident, Concorde had been the safest operational passenger airliner in the world in terms of passenger deaths-per-kilometres travelled[來源請求]. While an aircraft's safety cannot be accurately measured from a single incident, the crash of the Air France Concorde nonetheless proved to be the beginning of the end for the type.
The accident subsequently led to a programme of modifications, including more secure electrical controls, Kevlar lining to the fuel tanks and specially-developed burst-resistant tyres.
重投服務
The first test-flight after the modifications departed from London Heathrow on 17 July 2001, piloted by BA Chief Concorde Pilot Mike Bannister. During the three hour twenty minute flight over the mid-Atlantic towards Iceland, Bannister attained Mach 2 and 60,000 ft before returning to RAF Brize Norton. The test flight, intended to resemble the London-New York route, was declared a success and was watched on live TV, and by crowds on the ground at both locations.[24]
Normal commercial operations resumed on 7 November 2001 by BA and AF (aircraft G-BOAE[25] and F-BTSD), with service to New York JFK, where passengers were welcomed by the mayor, Rudy Giuliani.
The first BA passenger flight took place on 11 September 2001, and was in the air during the attacks on the World Trade Center. This was not a revenue flight, as all the passengers were BA employees.[26]
退役
On 10 April 2003, British Airways and Air France simultaneously announced that they would retire Concorde later that year. They cited low passenger numbers following the 25 July 2000 crash, the slump in air travel following 9/11 and rising maintenance costs.
That same day, Sir Richard Branson offered to buy British Airways' Concordes at their "original price of £1" for service with his Virgin Atlantic Airways. Branson claimed this to be the same token price that British Airways had paid the British Government, but BA denied this[27] and refused the offer. However, although the cost of buying the aircraft was £26 million each, the money for buying the aircraft was loaned by the government - this loan was written off when British Airways was privatised in 1987.
After posting large losses on their Concorde flights in the early 1980s, British Airways paid a flat sum of £16.5 million in 1984 to the UK government to buy their Concordes outright. After doing a market survey and discovering that their target customers thought that Concorde was more expensive than it actually was, BA progressively raised prices to match these perceptions. It is reported that BA then ran Concorde at a profit, unlike their French counterparts.[27] Although BA refused to open the accounts, it has been reported to be up to £50 million per year in the most profitable year and a total revenue of £1.75 billion on costs of £1 billion.[27]
Branson wrote in The Economist (23 October 2003) that his final offer was "over £5 million" and that he had intended to operate the fleet "for many years to come." Any hope of Concorde remaining in service was further thwarted by Airbus' unwillingness to provide maintenance support for the ageing airframes.
It has been suggested that Concorde was not cancelled for the reasons usually given, and that the airlines discovered during the grounding that Concorde's first class passengers were loyal to the airlines and carrying them on subsonic aircraft gave greater revenue and that this was the real reason for the withdrawal from service.[28]
The small hope remaining for Concorde today rests with a dedicated group of French volunteer engineers keeping one of the youngest Concordes in near airworthy condition. This group of engineers, working on the Air France aircraft retired to the Le Bourget Air and Space Museum in Paris, hope that one day Concorde will be able to show her majesty by taking to the skies. Concordes based in Britain, however, have had their fluids drained and systems have been disconnected, making it even harder for her to regain airworthiness certification. It appears that the French hopes present a much better chance of seeing her fly in the future.
法國航空
Air France made its final commercial Concorde landing in the United States in New York City from Paris on 30 May 2003. Firetrucks sprayed the traditional arcs of water above F-BTSD on the tarmac of John F. Kennedy airport. She returned to Paris on a misty May morning. The final passenger flight for the airline's SSTs was a charter around the Bay of Biscay. During the following week, on 2 June and 3 June 2003, F-BTSD flew a final round-trip from Paris to New York and back for airline staff and long-time employees in the airline's Concorde operations.[24] Air France's final Concorde flight took place on 27 June 2003 when F-BVFC retired to Toulouse.[25]
An auction of Concorde parts and memorabilia for Air France was held at Christie's in Paris on 15 November 2003. Thirteen hundred people attended, with several lots exceeding their predicted values by an order of magnitude.
Two French Concordes at Le Bourget and Toulouse have been run occasionally, and it is possible that they could be prepared for future flights for special occasions.[29]
英國航空
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BA's last Concorde departure from Grantley Adams International Airport in Barbados was on 30 August 2003. BA conducted a mini North American farewell tour in October 2003. G-BOAG visited Toronto Pearson International Airport on 1 October 2003, G-BOAD visited Boston's Logan International Airport on 8 October 2003, and G-BOAG visited Washington Dulles International Airport on 14 October 2003.[26] G-BOAD's flight to Boston set a record for the fastest transatlantic flight from east to west, making the trip from London Heathrow in 3 hours, 5 minutes, 34 seconds.[27]
In a final week of farewell flights around the United Kingdom, a Concorde visited Birmingham on 20 October, Belfast on 21 October, Manchester on 22 October, Cardiff on 23 October, and Edinburgh on 24 October. Each day the aircraft made a return flight out and back into Heathrow to the cities concerned, often overflying those cities at low altitude. Over 650 competition winners and 350 special guests were carried.
On 22 October, Heathrow ATC arranged for the inbound flight BA9021C, a special from Edinburgh, and BA002 from New York to land simultaneously on the left and right runways respectively.
On the evening of 23 October 2003, the Queen consented to the illumination of Windsor Castle as Concorde's last west-bound commercial flight departed London and flew overhead. This is an honour normally reserved for major state events and visiting dignitaries.
British Airways retired its aircraft the next day, 24 October. G-BOAG left New York to a fanfare similar to her Air France predecessor's, while two more made round trips, G-BOAF over the Bay of Biscay, carrying VIP guests including many former Concorde pilots, and G-BOAE to Edinburgh. The three aircraft then circled over London, having received special permission to fly at low altitude, before landing in sequence at Heathrow. The two round-trip Concordes landed at 4:01 and 4:03 p.m. BST, followed at 4:05 by the one from New York. All three aircraft then spent 45 minutes taxiing around the airport before finally disembarking the last supersonic fare-paying passengers. The pilot of the New York to London flight was Mike Bannister. All of BA's Concordes have been grounded, have lost their airworthiness certificates and have been drained of hydraulic fluid. Ex-chief Concorde pilot and manager of the fleet Jock Lowe, estimated it would cost £10-15 million to make G-BOAF (at Filton) airworthy again.[30] BA maintains ownership of the Concordes, and has stated that they will not fly again.
On 1 December 2003, Bonhams held an auction of British Airways' Concorde artifacts at Kensington Olympia, in London. Items sold included a Machmeter, nose cone, pilot and passenger seats, cutlery, ashtrays and blankets used onboard. Proceeds of about £? million resulted, with the first half-million going to Get Kids Going!, a charity which gives disabled children and young people the opportunity to participate in sport.
飛機資料
和諧式客機共建造20架,其中6架作開發測試之用。 包括:
- 2架原型機
- 2架預產機
- 16架量產機
- 首兩架量產機未有投入商業使用
- 其餘14架投入商業使用,至2003年4月剩下12架在役
生產編號 | 登記編號 | 首次飛行 | 最後飛行 | 飛行時數 | 地點 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
001 | F-WTSS | 1969年3月2日 | 1973年10月19日 | 812 | 法國布爾歇(Le Bourget)航空航天博物館(Musee de l'Air et de l'Espace) | |
002 | G-BSST | 1969年4月9日 | 1976年3月4日 | 836 | 英國尤維爾頓(Yeovilton)海軍航空兵博物館(Fleet Air Arm Museum) | |
101 | G-AXDN | 1971年12月17日 | 1977年8月20日 | 632 | 英國達克斯福德(Duxford)帝國戰爭博物館(Imperial War Museum) | |
102 | F-WTSA | 1973年1月10日 | 1976年5月20日 | 656 | 法國巴黎奧里機場(Orly Airport) | |
201 | F-WTSB | 1973年12月6日 | 1985年4月19日 | 909 | 法國圖盧茲空中巴士製造廠 | |
202 | G-BBDG | 1974年12月13日 | 1981年12月24日 | 1282 | 英國索立(Surrey)維橋(Weybridge)布魯克蘭博物館(Brooklands Museum) | |
203 | F-BTSC | 1975年1月31日 | 2000年7月25日 | 11989 | 於法國巴黎外圍墜毀 | |
204 | G-BOAC | 1975年2月27日 | 2003年10月31日 | 22260 | 英國曼徹斯特機場觀景公園 | |
205 | F-BVFA | 1976年10月27日 | 2003年6月12日 | 17824 | 美國維吉尼亞州夏提利(Chantilly)國立航空太空博物館(國立航空太空博物館)史蒂文·尤德華-海濟中心(Steven F. Udvar-Hazy Center) | |
206 | G-BOAA | 1975年11月5日 | 2000年8月12日 | 22768 | 蘇格蘭東洛錫安(East Lothian)飛行博物館(Museum of Flight) | |
207 | F-BVFB | 1976年3月6日 | 2003年6月24日 | 14771 | 德國辛斯海姆汽車與技術博物館(Sinsheim Auto & Technik | |
208 | G-BOAB | 1976年5月18日 | 2000年8月15日 | 22296 | 英國倫敦[[希斯路機場 | |
209 | F-BVFC | 1976年7月9日 | 2000年6月27日 | 14332 | 法國圖盧茲空中巴士製造廠 | |
210 | G-BOAD | 1976年8月25日 | 2003年11月10日 | 23397 | 美國紐約無畏號海空博物館(Intrepid Sea-Air-Space Museum) | |
211 | F-BVFD | 1977年2月10日 | 1982年5月27日 | 5814 | 於1982年5月27日重着陸後除役,1994年拆解成備用零件 | |
212 | G-BOAE | 1977年3月17日 | 2003年11月17日 | 23376 | 巴巴多斯 | |
213 | F-BTSD | 1978年6月26日 | 2003年6月14日 | 12974 | 法國布爾歇(Le Bourget)航空航天博物館(Musee de l'Air et de l'Espace) | |
214 | G-BOAG | 1978年4月21日 | 2003年11月5日 | 16239 | 美國西雅圖飛行博物館(Museum of Flight) | |
215 | F-BVFF | 1978年11月26日 | 2000年6月11日 | 12421 | 法國巴黎夏爾·戴高樂國際機場 | |
216 | G-BOAF | 1979年4月20日 | 2003年11月26日 | 18257 | 英國布里斯托弗里頓機場(Filton Aerodrome) |
文化及政治上的衝擊
和諧式客機使用的先進科技和其精雕細啄的外型,一直令她成為航空界的重要象徵。很多英國人和法國人都認為它是國家的驕傲;法國人認為它是法國的飛機,英國人則認為它是英國飛機。[31]
環境衝擊
人們對和諧式客機飛越時所造成嚴重噪音的反應代表着社會上的重大轉變。最初在和諧式客機航班試飛時,這種民用航空工業的產品都得到已發展的民主政府和其選民的廣泛支持。大眾(主要是美國東部沿岸的居民)對和諧式客機噪音的反響代表着政治上的轉折點,自此之後很多企業的科學家和技術人員都開始認真對待環境和社會衝擊的問題。
卡勞·雲迪(Carol Vendi)是和諧式客機的其中一位主要反對者,他因為這次事件而取得一些政治基礎並因此而進身美國國會。Concorde led directly to a general noise reduction in aircraft flying out of JFK; it was found that Concorde was actually quieter than some aircraft [32](partly due to the pilots temporarily throttling back their engines to reduce noise during overflight of residential areas). This caused the other airlines to have to follow suit.
和諧式客機飛行時排出氮氧化物,, which, despite complicated chemical interactions with other ozone-depleting chemicals, are understood to produce a net degradation to the ozone layer at the stratospheric altitudes she cruised[33]. It has been pointed out that other, lower-flying, airliners actually produce ozone during their flights in the troposphere, but vertical transit of gases between the two is highly restricted. There have been accusations that the anti-SST lobby overstated the case for ozone degradation to suit their political ends[來源請求]. The tiny fleet size meant the absolute destruction was not significant.
From this perspective, Concorde's technical leap forward can be viewed as boosting the public's (and the media's) understanding of conflicts between technology and the environment. In France, the use of acoustic fencing alongside TGV tracks might not have been achieved without the 1970s furore over aircraft noise. In Britain, the CPRE have issued tranquillity maps since 1990 and public agencies are starting to do likewise.
Concorde travelled, per passenger, 17 miles for each gallon of fuel (mpg)[34] (or 20 l/100km). This efficiency is comparable to a Gulfstream G550 business jet (~16 mpg or 18 l/100km per passenger)[35], but much lower than a Boeing 747-400 (~91 mpg or 3.1 l/100km per passenger)[36]
大眾認知
和諧式客機通常被認為是有錢人的專利,, but special circular (non-landing) or one-way (with return by coach or ship) charter flights were arranged to bring a trip within the means of moderately well-off enthusiasts.
Her enigma was such that an overflight would frequently temporarily halt day-to-day business, and she was usually referred to by the British as simply "Concorde"[37][38] and the French as "le Concorde" (rather than "un Concorde"), as if there were only one.
As a symbol of national pride, a plane from the BA fleet made occasional flypasts at selected Royal events, major airshows and other special occasions, sometimes in formation with the Red Arrows. On the final day of commercial service, public interest was so great that grandstands were erected at London's Heathrow Airport to afford a view of the final arrivals. Crowds filled the boundary road around the airport and there was extensive media coverage.
Thirty-seven years after her first test flight, Concorde was announced the winner of the Great British Design Quest, organised by the BBC and the Design Museum.[39] A total of 212,000 votes were cast with Concorde beating design icons such as the Mini, mini skirt, Jaguar E-type, Tube map and the Supermarine Spitfire.[40]
與其他超音速客機的比較
The only other supersonic airliner in direct competition with Concorde was the Soviet TU-144, and ultimately was a failure. Although the TU-144 entered service earlier, it was retired in 1978. The still-born project, the Boeing 2707, was America's entry into the supersonic sweepstakes.
As a result of a rushed development program, the TU-144 was cruder and much less refined than Concorde, with cabin noise notably higher. The early version of the TU-144D had significantly lower range than Concorde, largely due to its underpowered engines. It required reheat to maintain Mach 2.0 and cruised at Mach 1.6. The vehicle had poor control at low speeds because of a simpler, dedicated supersonic wing design. In addition, the Tu-144 required parachutes to land while Concorde had sophisticated antilock brakes. It also had two crashes, one at the 1973 Paris Air Show, which made further sales impossible, and another during a cargo flight. Later versions had retractable canards for better low speed control, and military engines from Tu-160 that gave them nearly the range of Concorde. It had 126 seats. With a top speed of Mach 2.35 (made possible due to titanium and steel leading edges), while theoretically a more competitive aircraft, this version was not exportable due to the military engines.
The American design was to have been larger, seating 300. It was also intended to reach higher speeds of up to Mach 3.0, which made the construction much more difficult, as high temperatures ruled out the use of duralumin. Running a few years behind Concorde, the extra costs of these features may have helped to kill the project. The discovery that sonic booms were quite capable of reaching the ground also meant that the aircraft was subject to the same environmental concerns that contributed to hindering commercial success of Concorde. The American government had spent over $1 billion on the project.[41]
可能的後繼機
In November 2003, European aviation company EADS, one of the members of the Airbus consortium, announced that it was considering working with Japanese companies to develop a larger, faster replacement for Concorde.[42] However, recent news reports suggest only $1m is being invested every year into research, much less than the $1bn needed for the development of a viable supersonic airliner.
In October 2005, JAXA, the Japan Aerospace eXploration Agency, undertook aerodynamic testing of a scale model of an airliner designed to carry 300 passengers at Mach 2. If pursued to commercial deployment, it would be expected to be in service around 2020 - 2025.[43]
Research into supersonic business jets is ongoing.
The British company Reaction Engines Limited, with 50% EU money, are researching LAPCAT, a design for a hydrogen-fuelled plane carrying 300 passengers, capable of flying nonstop from Brussels to Sydney at Mach 5+ in 4.6 hours.
規格
基本信息
- 機組:9人,包括機艙服務員
- 容量:100名乘客
性能
- 推重比:.373
流行文化
Concorde has been featured or mentioned in:
- The Wild Geese (1978) film: Colonel Faulkner (Richard Burton) arrives at London Heathrow on Concorde.
- Hart To Hart (1979-1984) television series: features Concorde landing in the opening title credits.
- The Concorde: Airport '79 film: Concorde starred in this poorly received and outlandish film sequel in the Airport series. The Concorde used for the live-action aerial filming was the Air France Concorde that crashed 21 years later on 25 July, 2000.
- The Concorde Affair (Concorde Affaire in orig.) Italy (1979) film: Director: Ruggero Deodato.
- Moonraker (1979) film: James Bond arrives in Rio de Janeiro on an Air France Concorde. Air France flew Concorde on the Paris-Dakar-Rio route at the time.
- The Long Good Friday (1980) film: Harold Shand (Bob Hoskins) flies into Heathrow on Concorde.
- Superman II (1980) film: Superman overtakes Concorde on his way to Paris.
- Doctor Who television series: Concorde features in the 1982 story "Time-Flight."
- The Transformers (1984-1987) television series: as the Aerialbot leader Silverbolt in the animated TV series. In the toy line, the Micromasters: "Supersonic" and "Skydive" also turn into Concordes.
- Coming to America (1988) film: Prince Akeem (Eddie Murphy) and Semmi (Arsenio Hall) arrive in New York on a British Airways Concorde.
- The Bonfire of the Vanities (1990) film: Maria Ruskin (Melanie Griffith) arrives in New York on an Air France Concorde. The film's Second Unit Director, Eric Schwab, went to considerable effort to calculate the exact time and day when a runway at JFK would line up exactly with the setting sun, to serve as a spectacular backdrop.
- Absolutely Fabulous (1992-2004) television series: Edina Monsoon and Patsy Stone made regular trips to New York on Concorde.
- Snatch (2000) film: Cousin Avi flew on Concorde from New York City to London to see Doug the Head, then back, after an unexpected turn of events, and again to London in the closing scene of the film.
- Sabrina (1995) film: Linus Larrabee (Harrison Ford) takes an Air France Concorde from New York to Paris in order to meet Sabrina on time, since she had left New York earlier on a conventional Air France flight.
- Only Fools and Horses (1981- 2003) television series: in the 1996 Christmas episode, after attending the auction of the John Harrison pocket watch which made them millionaires, the family is seen aboard Concorde on their way home from America.
- The Parent Trap (1998 version) film: Hallie and her father take Concorde so that they can beat the twins' mother and Annie to London.
- Cats & Dogs (2001) film: Concorde was used to transport secret agent dogs from the UK to the USA.
- National Treasure (2004) film: Concorde is shown on New York Harbor.
- SuperSonic Dream (2005) television documentary: a PBS NOVA documentary about Concorde
- Microsoft Flight Simulator 2000.
- Public reaction to the Air France Concorde crash was cited by Jeremy Clarkson during a 2004 TV appearance on Parkinson as a primary inspiration for his book I Know You Got Soul.
參考資料
- Beniada, Frederic. Concorde. St Paul, Minnesota: Zenith Press, 2006. ISBN 0-7603-2703-3.
- Calvert, Brian. Flying Concorde, The Full Story. London: Crowood Press, 2002. ISBN 1-84037-352-0.
- Endres, Gunter. Concorde. St Paul, Minnestota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1.
- McIntyre, Ian. Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle over Airbus. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-275-94278-3.
參考文獻
- ^ http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/uk/850899.stm
- ^ http://www.concordesst.com/history/eh1.html#a
- ^ http://www.guardian.co.uk/g2/story/0,3604,1064752,00.html Benn's Concorde memories in The Guardian
- ^ McIntyre, Ian. Dogfight: The Transatlantic Battle over Airbus. Westport, Connecticut: Praeger Publishers, 1992. ISBN 0-275-94278-3. p. 20.
- ^ Endres, Gunter. Concorde. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1. P. 40.
- ^ Payments for Concorde
- ^ JFK commitment speech
- ^ counting the costs
- ^ Calvert, Brian. Flying Concorde, The Full Story. London: Crowood Press, 2002. ISBN 1-84037-352-0.
- ^ Concorde was tested with both engines on one wing shutdown successfully
- ^ [1]
- ^ I Know You Got Soul - Jeremy Clarkson
- ^ http://www.concordesst.com/history/orders.html
- ^ [2]
- ^ http://www.britishairways.com/travel/healthcosmic/public/en_gb#4 British Airway: Cosmic radiation
- ^ [3]
- ^ [4]
- ^ [5]
- ^ Endres, Günter. Concorde. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1. P. 90.
- ^ [6]
- ^ http://www.wedgwood.com/
- ^ [7]
- ^ Endres, Gunter. Concorde. St. Paul, Minnesota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1. P. 110-113.
- ^ http://www.foxnews.com/story/0,2933,29732,00.html
- ^ G-INFO Database. Civil Aviation Authority.
- ^ http://www.concordesst.com/returntoflight/ba9010c.html
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 'Did Concorde make a profit for British Airways?'
- ^ [8]
- ^ UK Times: This is not a flight of fancy
- ^ UK Times: This is not a flight of fancy
- ^ [9]
- ^ Endres, Gunter. Concorde. St. Paul, Minnestota: MBI Publishing Company, 2001. ISBN 0-7603-1195-1. p. 90.
- ^ Ozone depletion FAQ
- ^ [10]
- ^ Fuel efficiency of airplanes
- ^ Boeing 747-400
- ^ [11]
- ^ [12]
- ^ [13]
- ^ [14]
- ^ [15]
- ^ [16]
- ^ [17]
外部連結
- "Farewell to Concorde" (BBC)
- Aircraft-Info.net - Concorde
- Concorde on display at Manchester Airport - UK
- Take off and landing video clips from the final flights (BA)
- 2003 Video stream of amateur footage (requires Java) features an unscheduled stop at Gander, Canada due to unusually hot weather en route to New York, August 2003
- THE REAL STORY OF FLIGHT 4590: SPECIAL INVESTIGATION A freak 'single cause' accident was blamed when an Air France Concorde crashed in flames in Paris last year, killing 114 people. But a number of errors which could have been avoided may have played a part in the disaster.
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