越南文字歷史
注意:本條目可能有部分字元無法顯示,若遇此情況請參閱Wikipedia:Unicode擴展漢字。 |
今日越南語口語和書面語使用的是以拉丁字母為基礎的越南語字母,詞彙中有越南本地詞、漢越詞、喃字,統稱為「漢喃」,此外還有來自歐洲語言的音譯詞。越南文學作品是用喃字,在此之前是漢字書寫的。
京族祖先是說原始南亞語的人群,可能可以追溯回東山文化。現代語言學家描述說,越南語已經失去了古越南語所具有的一些原始南亞語語音、形態特徵。這在約一千年前越南語與越-芒語的分離時顯現了端倪。[1][2][3]自公元前111年直至20世紀,越南文學都是用Chữ Hán/𡨸汉(漢字)書寫的文言文(越南語:cổ văn/古文、văn ngôn/文言或Hán văn/漢文),10-20世紀期間也使用chữ Nôm/喃字(即改編為適應越南語的漢字)。[4]:5[5]
喃字在10世紀得到廣泛傳播,早在8世紀就開始在散文小說和詩歌中使用,但從未獲得正式地位。喃字系統用漢字書寫漢越詞並使用一套經過改編的字符搭配系統,基於與中古漢語的近音字來轉寫越南本地詞。[6]這兩種文字同時存在,直到法屬印度支那時期,基於拉丁字母的國語字才逐漸成為當代文學的書面媒介。[7]過去,梵文、印度語言也對越南文學做出了貢獻,它們或是來自大乘佛教,或是來自占婆和高棉帝國的歷史影響。
術語
越南語中漢字依據作用和所表示詞彙的來源可以分為以下幾類:
- Hán tự/漢字:即「漢字」。
- Chữ Hán/𡨸漢:即「漢字」,與上一條同義,不同之處在於上一條完全為音譯詞。
- Hán văn/漢文:即「文言文」[8]:228[9]:281, 900。
- Chữ Nho/𡨸儒。[10]:16[8]:141, 228[9]:281
越南語chữ/𡨸(字)一詞來自中古漢語「字」。[11]:47
漢越詞(越南語:từ Hán Việt/詞漢越)指從漢語借入越南語的詞,一般是依據借入時的古漢語語音。就句法和詞彙而言,這種漢越詞實際上和北京話沒什麼不同,就像中世紀的英國拉丁語與羅馬拉丁語的關係一樣。它的主要影響來自於越南文言文。[12]
喃字(越南語:Chữ Nôm/𡨸喃)指古代越南語白話的轉寫系統,用原來的漢字和當地創造的漢字中本沒有的喃字混合書寫,以漢字讀音表示越南語本土詞音、詞義。[13][14]喃字包含的字符多達3.7萬個,許多字符在構成上有任意性,在發音上也不一致。[15]:525[16]
漢喃(越南語:Hán Nôm/漢喃)可以指同時使用漢字和喃字的書寫方法,如河內漢喃研究院的研究對象,或指漢字與喃字混合書寫的文本,或一些漢字文本與喃字間的平行翻譯。[17]漢字與喃字間的正字法有大量重疊,許多字在漢字和漢字中有相同的讀法。[18]把喃字看成漢字適應越南語的結果或許是最簡單的做法。國語字(chữ quốc ngữ/𡨸國語)指基於拉丁字母的越南語文字。
歷史
漢字
漢字,越南語:Hán tự/漢字、Chữ Hán、Chữ Nho/𡨸儒,指普通話時常用Chữ Hoa或Tiếng Hoa,指漢語整體時常用Tiếng Tàu。公元前1千紀末,中國南方百越的精英就可能已經採用了一種基於漢字的方式記錄自己語言中的詞彙。[19]自公元前111年至公元905年受中國統治的漫長時間段里,漢字一直用作該地區的官方文字。用漢字書寫的當地文本可能也包括一些經過改編的字,以表示古越南語詞彙,通常是人名或地名。[19]據部分學者的說法,漢字的使用可能始自士燮(137–226),也有許多人反對。[19]第一篇完全由漢字寫就的越南語白話文章出自晚唐廖有方之手。[20]:568
這些文學作品起初與中國、朝鮮或日本同時代的文言文沒有區別。如僧人匡越的《南國山河》及許多儒、道、佛教的經文。[5][21][22][23]
到1174年,漢字已成為越南宮廷的官方文字,主要用於行政管理和文人大夫間,並一直發揮這一作用,直到19世紀中葉法國殖民統治時期,法國的教育系統改用音譯的國語字推廣教育。[24]:102
越南早期銘文列表
北屬時期(c. 0–900 AD)
銘文 | 時代 | 發現地 | 發現年 | 描述 |
---|---|---|---|---|
未知 | 314/450(東晉或劉宋) | 北寧省順成縣青姜社青懷村 21°03′00″N 106°04′59″E / 21.050°N 106.083°E
|
2013 | 有兩處篆書漢字可辨。1967年毀於越南戰爭滾雷行動。[25][26] |
大隋九真郡寶安道場之碑文 |
618[27]:51(隋) | 清化市東山縣19°48′27″N 105°46′35″E / 19.80750°N 105.77639°E | 1960 | 讚揚隋朝官員「黎督軍」與唐軍作戰的功績。[28]:108有957字,246字已磨失難辨。 |
青枚鍾銘文 |
798[27]:51(唐) | 河內青威縣青枚社 20°51′13″N 105°46′06″E / 20.853715°N 105.768395°E |
1986 | 記錄了當地佛教組織及其243名成員:135名女性,108名男性。顯示了安南當地婦女在宗教生活中的崇高地位。[28]:109–110[29]:202, 204, 208–210 |
後古典–大越早期(900–1230)
漢越音
越南漢字文本被稱作「Hán văn/漢文」,與日語「漢文」、朝鮮語「한문/漢文」異曲同工。[38][39]這與漢越詞在越南語白話中的擴張同步,[40]並創造出一種獨特的域外方音。[41]蒲立本是第一批積極採用漢越音構擬古漢語讀音的語言學家之一。[42]
喃字
13世紀開始,漢字的主導地位開始受到喃字挑戰。喃字是在漢字基礎上創建的一套用於轉寫越南本土詞彙的書寫系統,這些文字甚至比漢字本身更難。喃字借用了漢字的語音和語義信息來造字。[24]:102-103
雖然是為越南本土文字設計的,但喃字也對使用者對漢字的了解提出了相當高的要求,因此喃字主要用於文化精英的文學作品(如阮攸、胡春香的詩作),而幾乎所有其他官方文獻在20世紀之前仍用文言文書寫。[43][44]
雖然在技術上與漢字不大相同,把喃字看成漢字適應越南語的結果或許是最簡單的做法。原本就有的漢字與越南人自造的漢字統稱為「漢喃」。然而,這種新文字雖然使越南語的大眾傳播和記錄成為可能,拉丁文字似乎才是更受歡迎的記錄越南語白話的方法。
國音新字
Quốc Âm Tân Tự/國音新字是19世紀中期出現的一種越南文字系統。漢喃研究院存有兩份以此寫就的文件(各四頁):一份較老的佚名手稿,及一份較新的名為「國音新字」的副本。文件中沒有任何直接表明寫作年代的信息。基於序言中「華」字最後一筆因避諱省略,可推測其寫於紹治年間(1841-1847)(紹治帝之母名為「胡氏華」)。序末跋曰「五星聚斗南城居士阮子書」。從序中可知,國音新字的發明者是南定市俗家,姓阮,號五星聚斗。[46]
國音新字是一種由漢喃字筆畫組成的拼音文字(類似於日語片假名或漢語注音字母),有22個cán tự/幹字和110個chi tự/枝字,幹字表示聲母,枝字表示韻母。其中枝字由幹字字形派生而來,每個幹字有5個派生枝字。
每個枝字和幹字自身除了都可以表示一個完整的音節外,也用於左右互相拼合表示其他的音節。其中,每個干字都可以表示一個以「ông」為韻母的音節(在原文中以漢字或喃字表示其讀音,包括記錄/ʔ/聲母的幹字「ông」。),而枝字則以5個爲一組,表示聲母相同而韻母不同的音節。例如,字形上由表示「ng」聲母的幹派生而來的枝字分別表示「nghe」「ngon」「ngan」「nghi」「ngâm」五個音節。當幹字與枝字互相拼合時,便取幹字聲母與枝字韻母拼合。例如表示聲母「đ」的幹字本身讀音為「đông」,表示韻母「i」的枝字本身讀音爲「nghi」,當兩者拼合時則表示「đi」音節。國音新字沒有區分國語字的d和gi,可能是因為發明者以兩者同音的北部口音為基礎設計。但是,由於原文中並未給出使用這一字母體系書寫的例文,只給出了漢喃字注音,並且一些喃字的讀音難以確認,目前還未能確認每個枝字的具體讀音。並且,根據研究,一些枝字明明寫法不同,但是卻表示了相同的韻母。[46]
國音新字的作者使用了四種筆畫:橫(一)、豎(丨)、點(丶)和撇(丿)(撇還有變體「㇏」)來創造干字和枝字。無論一個單字包含多少種筆畫,該單字中筆畫的總數(不區分筆畫類型)都為四。
國音新字聲調遵循傳統四聲劃分:平、上、去、入,每聲調進一步分陰陽兩調,共八調。聲調符號位於左下、左上、右上、右下方時分別表示平上去入四聲,陰調以一個小半圓表示,陽調以一個小圓表示。值得注意的是,原枝字中將入聲韻尾視作鼻音韻尾的入聲調讀法,因此枝字中並未包含單獨的入聲韻。入聲韻由鼻音韻的枝字加上入聲調符號表示。[46]
國音新字是越南人自創的一套拼音文字,它可以像漢字或喃字一樣直書或橫書。然而,由於它出現得太晚,沒有足夠的時間像日語假名一樣普及開來。當時越南的社會政治形勢複雜,也是一個原因。
國語字
越南語拉丁字母或是越南語目前使用的文字。它最早由葡萄牙傳教士在17世紀據葡萄牙語的拼寫和字母表開發。200年來,國語字主要在天主教社區內使用。[24]:106法屬印度支那時期,國語字得到進一步修訂,1910年被納入義務教育。[47]
同時文言文及其漢字寫成的書面形式開始衰落。此時越南有四種互相競爭的書寫系統:漢字、喃字、國語字、法語字母。[48]第一份國語字報紙《嘉定報》1865年就創刊了,但越南民族主義者直到一戰都在用喃字。
從法國殖民統治下獨立後,國語字成為了越南獨立運動中最受歡迎的書面語。[49]
BBC記者阮江指出,雖然一般認為是早期基督教傳教士創造了國語字,但他們做的並沒有多麼獨特或困難,沒有他們的發明,後來也會有人做。[50]他進一步指出,阮朝拉丁字母得以普及主要取決於法屬印度支那知識分子的開拓性努力,以及法屬印度支那政府的進步政策,為國語字的普及創造了莫大動力。[50]阮江表示,東京義塾實際上只是為阮朝精英們削除了使用國語字的恥辱感,而沒有真正普及它。[50]
拉丁字母沒能成為柬埔寨和老撾的書寫系統的一個重要原因是阮朝皇帝們大力推廣了拉丁文的使用。[50]據歷史學家黎明凱於《成泰帝的教育革命》(2016)中的說法,法國人和革命者都沒有足夠的力量將國語字推廣到村莊一級。[50]根據1906年出台的法令,成泰帝的父母可以決定他們的孩子要學「漢文」還是「南音」(即當時阮朝高層對國語字的稱呼)。[50]這項法令是在其他社會變革,如男性剪掉長髮的同時頒布的。[50]
從一開始我們就認識到,漢語是我們和當地人之間的障礙;象形文字所提供的教育完全超出了我們的範圍;這種文字只能艱難地將他們在新的政治商業形勢下所需要的各種思想傳遞給民眾。如此,我們不得不遵循我們自己教育體系的傳統;這是唯一能向殖民地安南人灌輸歐洲文明的原則,並使他們不受鄰國的敵對影響而使他們接近我們體系的方法。[24]:107
— 1866年1月15日,交趾支那總督辦公室主任Paulin Vial一封信
受國語字教育普及的影響,不精通漢字的越南人無法閱讀早期用漢喃書寫的越南文本。漢喃研究院是全國性的漢喃文學學術研究中心。儘管越南一直試圖通過學校教育或日常生活中的使用來恢復漢喃,但幾乎所有的古詩詞和文學作品都被翻譯成了國語字,這使得漢喃的識字需求幾乎消失了。然而,許多越南人發現自己很難從漢喃的文化遺產中脫離出來,他們仍覺得與漢字有種親密的關係。
梵文、占文、高棉文、印度諸文字
-
梵文
-
占文
-
占–越文
-
高棉文
-
高棉文
-
梵–高棉文
梵文或從漢語譯經間接傳到越南,或從占婆和高棉直接傳到越南。至今仍保留的最重要的標之一是古老的美山聖地,有梵文和占文銘文。[51]武竟碑文也是東南亞最老的梵語碑文之一,是林邑、占婆、扶南等國的遺產。[52][53]現代越南語中最著名的梵語短語來自佛教咒語नमोऽमिताभाय/ Namo Amitābhāya / 南無阿彌陀佛,意為「歸命無量光佛」或「我向無量光的啟蒙者致敬/我轉向依靠無量光的啟蒙者」。[54]此外,越南許多地方都有高棉語地名,大都是扶南、真臘統治時期的名字,例如ស្រុកឃ្លាំង Srok Khleangis越南語中寫作Sóc Trăng。湄公河三角洲受到的高棉文化影響尤為強烈。
傣擔文
傣擔文是16世紀至今傣擔及其他越南西北部台語民族使用的元音附標文字,源自蘭納泰文。
現代漢字與喃字的用途
書法家們仍在越南新年等特殊場合書寫漢字。[55]它們仍然存在於寺廟之外,仍為學術和宗教目的而研究。
國語字書法1950年代誕生以來,獲得了巨大成功,使漢字書法受到了影響。
1990年代中期以來,無論漢字書法還是喃字書法,都收到了漢字教學回潮的影響。這有助於越南歷史研究以及文化統一。[56]
對語言學家來說,漢字漢越音為研究古漢語提供了寶貴數據。
此外,許多越南人可以通過漢字學習其他語言,如漢語、日語、朝鮮語等。這樣,他們最後也能一定程度上使用漢喃字。
漢喃字的意義有時也會出現在西方對越南的描述中,特別是法國統治時期。例如小說家E. M. Nathanson在《骯髒而遙遠的戰事》(1987)中提到了漢字。[57]
混合書寫
胡志明就用混合的拉丁-漢喃文書寫。比較成功的漢喃復興運動如越南漢喃復興委員會(越南語:Ủy ban Phục sinh Hán Nôm Việt Nam/委班復生漢喃越南http://www.hannom-rcv.org/)。[58]
印度-阿拉伯數字系統 | 漢字 | 漢越音 | 喃字與現代國語字 | 法語 | |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
0 | 〇 | Linh | 空 | Không | zéro |
1 | 一 | Nhất | 𠬠 | Một | un |
2 | 二 | Nhị, nhì | 𠄩 | Hai | deux |
3 | 三 | Tam | 𠀧 | Ba | trois |
4 | 四 | Tứ, tư | 𦊚 | Bốn | quatre |
5 | 五 | Ngũ | 𠄼 | Năm | cinq |
6 | 六 | Lục | 𦒹 | Sáu | six |
7 | 七 | Thất | 𦉱 | Bảy | sept |
8 | 八 | Bát | 𠔭 | Tám | huit |
9 | 九 | Cửu | 𢒂 | Chín | neuf |
10 | 十 | Thập | 𨑮 | Mười | dix |
100 | 百 | Bách | 𤾓 | Trăm | cent |
1000 | 千 | Thiên | 𠦳 | Nghìn | mille |
10,000 | 萬 | Vạn | 𨑮 𠦳 | Mười Nghìn | dix mille |
1,000,000 | 百萬 | Bách vạn | 兆 | Triệu | un million |
另見
相關的羅馬化方案:
參考文獻
引用
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- ^ LaPolla, Randy J. Language Contact and Language Change in the History of the Sinitic Languages. Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences. 2010, 2 (5): 6858–6868. ISSN 1877-0428. doi:10.1016/j.sbspro.2010.05.036 .
- ^ 阮, 知才. Giáo trình tiếng Hán. Tập I: Cơ sở. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. 2002.
- ^ 5.0 5.1 Vietnamese literature. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2019-04-13]. (原始內容存檔於2021-02-01) (英語).
- ^ Asian & Pacific quarterly of cultural and social affairs – Volumes 20–21 Cultural and Social Centre for the Asian and Pacific Region 1988 – Page 7 "... known script that was used by the Vietnamese, the "Southerners," to transcribe their language, in contrast to the Chinese ideographs (called chữ Hán i.e., "Chinese script," or chữ nho i.e. "Confucian script") of the "Northerners," the Chinese."
- ^ Vietnam 10 – Page 522 Nick Ray, Yu-Mei Balasingamchow, Iain Stewart – 2009 「幾個世紀以來,越南語言都是用儒字書寫的。大約在13世紀,越南人設計了他們自己的書寫系統,稱為喃字,它是由兩個漢字組合或假借單個漢字實現的。這兩種書寫系統一直使用到20世紀--官方事務和學術研究用儒字書寫,而喃字則用於流行文學。以拉丁文為基礎的國語字要到一戰後才被廣泛使用,它是在17世紀由Alexandre de Rhodes開發的(見右圖方框內的文字)。國語字大大削弱了官僚的地位,他們的權力是建立在傳統的儒字、喃字的學術基礎上的,而這些文字對大眾來說基本上是不可觸及的。」
- ^ 8.0 8.1 Hội Khai-trí tiến-đức. Việt-nam tự-điển. Văn Mới. 1954.
- ^ 9.0 9.1 Đào, Duy Anh. Hán-Việt từ-điển giản yếu. Nhà xuất bản Văn hoá Thông tin. 2005.
- ^ Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn. Nguồn gốc và quá trình hình thành cách đọc Hán Việt. Nhà xuất bản Đại học quốc gia Hà Nội. 2001.
- ^ Nguyễn, Tài Cẩn. Giáo trình lịch sử ngữ âm tiếng Việt (sơ thảo). Nhà xuất bản Giáo dục. 1995.
- ^ Marr, David G., Vietnamese Tradition on Trial, 1920–1945: 141, 1984,
Because the Chinese characters were pronounced according to Vietnamese preferences, and because certain stylistic modifications occurred over time, later scholars came to refer to a hybrid 'Sino-Vietnamese' (Han-Viet) language. However, there would seem to be no more justification for this term than for a Fifteenth Century 'Latin-English' versus the Latin written contemporaneously in Rome.
- ^ Nguyễn, Khuê. Chữ Nôm: cơ sở và nâng cao. Nhà xuất bản Đại học Quốc gia Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh. 2009: 5, 215.
- ^ Hugh Dyson Walker East Asia A New History −2012 Page 262 "...chu nom, Vietnamese transcription, using Chinese and nom characters for Vietnamese sounds."
- ^ Denecke 2017.
- ^ Hannas, Wm. C. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 1997: 82. ISBN 9780824818920.
The linguistic defects are the same as those noted throughout this book for Chinese characters generally, caused by the large number of tokens (some twenty thousand in chữ nôm), the arbitrariness of their composition, and the inconsistent way the units and their components connect with the sounds of the language.
- ^ Trần, Văn Chánh. Tản mạn kinh nghiệm học chữ Hán cổ. Suối Nguồn, Tập 3&4 (Nhà xuất bản Tổng hợp Thành phố Hồ Chí Minh). January 2012: 82.
- ^ Hung, Eva; Wakabayashi, Judy, Asian translation traditions: 174, 2005,
A large portion of the lexicon of the Vietnamese language in recent centuries derives from Hán. Consequently, there is a significant orthographic overlap between Hán and Nôm, which is to say that many characters are used in both with the same meaning. This is primarily a lexical, not a syntactic, phenomenon, although Hán grammar did influence Nôm prose to a relatively significant extent (Xtankevich 1986).
- ^ 19.0 19.1 19.2 Kiernan, Ben. Việt Nam: A History from Earliest Times to the Present. Oxford University Press. 2017: 152 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780195160765. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11).
- ^ Kornicki 2017.
- ^ Cœdès, George. The Making of South East Asia. 由H. M. Wright翻譯. University of California Press. 1966: 87 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780520050617. (原始內容存檔於2022-04-21).
No work of literature from the brush of a Vietnamese survives from the period of Chinese rule prior to the rise of the first national dynasties; and from the Dinh, Former Le, and Ly dynasties, all that remains are some poems by Lac Thuan (end of the tenth century), Khuông Việt (same period), and Ly Thuong Kiet (last quarter of the eleventh century). Those competent to judge consider these works to be quite up to the best standards of Chinese literature.
- ^ Nick Ray; Yu-Mei Balasingamchow. Lonely Planet Vietnam. 2010.
Sino-Vietnamese literature was written in Chinese characters (chữ nho). Dominated by Confucian and Buddhist texts, it was governed by strict rules of metre and verse. Modern Vietnamese literature (quoc am) includes anything recorded in ...
- ^ Woodside, Alexander Barton. Vietnam and the Chinese Model. 1971: 53. ISBN 9780674937215.
Although traditional Vietnamese scholars called Sino-Vietnamese literature 'serious literature' and nôm literature 'the literature of pleasure', this dichotomy is obviously misleading.
- ^ 24.0 24.1 24.2 24.3 Li 2020.
- ^ Nguyễn, Phạm Bằng. Thông tin thêm về bia đá cổ nhất Việt Nam. 2013-12-06 [2018-10-25]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-14).
- ^ Trần Thế. Tiết lộ thú vị về tấm bia đá cổ nhất Việt Nam. 2019-10-02 [2021-02-12]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11).
- ^ 27.0 27.1 27.2 27.3 27.4 Ha 2018.
- ^ 28.0 28.1 28.2 28.3 Kiernan 2019.
- ^ Salmon 2004.
- ^ Salmon 2007.
- ^ 31.0 31.1 Nguyen 2008.
- ^ 32.0 32.1 32.2 32.3 32.4 32.5 32.6 Pham 2013.
- ^ Miksic 2016.
- ^ 34.0 34.1 34.2 34.3 Whitmore 2015.
- ^ 35.0 35.1 35.2 Tran 2008.
- ^ Taylor 2018.
- ^ Pham 2013,第45頁.
- ^ Bjarke Frellesvig A History of the Japanese Language 2010 – Page 258 "... the rendition of Chinese text in Japanese, which affected grammar and usage (see 9.1) and (kanbun-)ondoku, the vocalization of Chinese text as such, which paved the way for the intake of a large number of loanwords from Chinese (9.2).
- ^ Nichibunken newsletter Kokusai Nihon Bunka Kenkyū Sentā 1996 – No23–36 – Page 52 "The novel was then translated from Chinese into Vietnamese by a Vietnamese revolutionist. Knowledge of kanbun (classical Chinese) was quite common among Vietnamese intellectuals, and the new kanbun style of Liang Zhi-chau ..."
- ^ Hannas, Wm. C. Asia's Orthographic Dilemma. Honolulu: University of Hawai'i Press. 1997: 77 [2022-02-11]. ISBN 9780824818920. (原始內容存檔於2022-04-12).
Sifting out Sinitic from native vocabulary is more of a problem in Vietnamese than in Japanese or even in Korean because of the longer history of contact between Chinese and Vietnamese, and because of the intimacy (most Vietnamese would...) Vietnam was under Chinese 'suzerainty'... During this long period, the Vietnamese language itself was overshadowed and to some extent replaced by Chinese, opening the door to thousands of Chinese terms...
- ^ Language research – Seoul University Language Research Centre 1990 – Volume 26 – Page 327 "The term Sinoxenic dialects was first used by Samuel Martin to refer to the foreign readings of Chinese characters, such as Sino-Korean, Sino-Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese. By Sino-Korean, Sino- Japanese, and Sino- Vietnamese, ..."
- ^ John R. Bentley A Descriptive Grammar of Early Old Japanese Prose 2001 – Page 39 "... (1975:195, fn. 3) and his reconstructions, but it is interesting to note that Pulleyblank's work actually supports Miller's claims. ... to have been one of the first linguists to notice the importance of SV in reconstructing earlier stages of Chinese."
- ^ Ha Minh Nguyen, Bac Hoai Tran, Tuan Duc Vuong Colloquial Vietnamese: The Complete Course for Beginners Routledge 2012 Page 3 "Because of thousands of years of Chinese domination and influence, the Vietnamese used Chinese characters known as chu nho as their official written language for many centuries. However chu nho was not easy to learn and only the ..."
- ^ D. W. Sloper, Thạc Cán Lê Higher Education in Vietnam: Change and Response 1995 Page 45 "All teaching materials are written in Han, Chinese classical characters known as chu nho. From about the thirteenth century a Vietnamese system of writing, chu nom or simply nom, was developed. ... chu nho was used for official business and scholarship, while chu nom was used for popular literature."
- ^ Tap chi Han Nom so 1/1989. [2022-02-11]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11).
- ^ 46.0 46.1 46.2 存档副本. [2022-02-11]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11).
- ^ Quoc-ngu | Vietnamese writing system. Encyclopedia Britannica. [2019-04-13]. (原始內容存檔於2015-07-19) (英語).
- ^ Andrew Simpson Language and national identity in Asia 2007 Page 428 "..there existed a situation in which there were briefly four different available writing systems in Vietnam, chu nho, chu nom, quoc ngu, and Romanized French. ... (4) The acceptability of quoc ngu was then further heightened by its use to translate works of literature from Chinese and chu nom, as well as through its ..."
- ^ Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose A Companion to the History of the Book – Page 124 2009 "The first publication in quoc ngu was the first Vietnamese newspaper, Gia-dinh báo (Daily Paper, 1865), ... During World War I, the colonial administration encouraged quoc ngu journalism for propaganda purposes, and as a result journals"
- ^ 50.0 50.1 50.2 50.3 50.4 50.5 50.6 Nguyễn Quang Duy. Quốc ngữ và nỗ lực 'thoát Hán' của các vua nhà Nguyễn.. Người Việt Daily News. 2018-09-12 [2021-09-15]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11) (越南語).
- ^ My Son Sanskrit texts to be translated into Vietnamese, English. en.nhandan.org.vn. [2021-04-06] (英語).
- ^ The Inscription of Vo-Canh. www.meruheritage.com. [2021-04-06]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-07).
- ^ Sanskrit inscriptions. Tamil and Vedas. [2021-04-06]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-11) (英語).
- ^ https://kienthuc.net.vn. Nam Mô A Di Đà Phật có nghĩa là gì?. trithuccuocsong.vn. 2019-08-12 [2021-04-06]. (原始內容存檔於2022-02-15).
- ^ Vietnam Economic Times Volume 98 – Page 14 Viện kinh tế thế giới (Vietnam) "Today calligraphy is considered one of their most respected art forms. Vietnam also has a long history of calligraphy, but in its earliest form it was called Han Nom, a way of using the Chinese characters to convey Vietnamese words."
- ^ Simon Eliot, Jonathan Rose A Companion to the History of the Book Page 124 – 2011 "Since the use of quoc ngu for education has rendered most Vietnamese now incapable of reading earlier Vietnamese ... an increasing commitment to the publication of translations from Chinese or of transcriptions from nom texts to render ..."
- ^ E. M. Nathanson Dirty Distant War 1987 Page 121 "So they took the Chinese ideographs for those words, changed them a little to make them distinctive from the Chinese characters, and in that way developed a written language. That's the script that became what we refer to today as chữ nho."
- ^ (). www.hannomrcv.org. [2019-04-13]. (原始內容存檔於2014-12-19).
書目
- Ha, Van Tan. Inscriptions from Tenth to Fourteenth Centuries recently discovered in Vietnam. Cornell University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-1-50171-899-1.
- Kiernan, Ben. Việt Nam: a history from earliest time to the present. Oxford University Press. 2019.
- Miksic, John Norman. Ancient Southeast Asia. Routledge. 2016.
- Nguyen, Tai Thu. The History of Buddhism in Vietnam. Council for Research in Values and Philosophy. 2008.
- Pham, T. T. V. Inscriptions during Ly period. TẠP CHÍ HÁN NÔM số 6. 2013, 121 (越南語).
- Salmon, Claudine, Tang-Viet society as reflected in a Buddhist bell inscription, Shing, Müller; Höllmann, Thomas O. (編), Archäologie und Frühe Texte, Germany: Harrassowitz: 195–216, 2004, ISBN 978-3-447-05060-9
- ———, Transnational networks as reflected in epigraphy: the case of Chinese Buddhist bells in southeast Asia, Colin, Storey; Tan, Chee Beng (編), Chinese overseas : migration, research and documentation, Chinese University Press: 23–84, 2007, ISBN 978-9-62996-328-6
- Taylor, K. W. Tales from stone and paper about Do Anh Vu (1114–1159). Cornell University Press. 2018. ISBN 978-1-50171-899-1.
- Tran, T. G. H., BƯỚC ĐẦU TÌM HIỂU CHỮ NÔM TRONG CÁC BẢN VĂN KHẮC THỜI LÝ TRẦN, 2008 (越南語)
- Whitmore, John K., Building a Buddhist monarchy in Dai Viet: Temples and texts uder Ly Nhan Tong (1072-1127), Lammerts, Dietrich Christian (編), Buddhist Dynamics in Premodern and Early Modern Southeast Asia, ISEAS Publishing, Institute of Southeast Asian Studies: 283–306, 2015, ISBN 978-9-814-51906-9
- Denecke, Wiebke, Shared Literary Heritage, Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (編), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 510–532, 2017, ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1
- Kornicki, Peter, Sino-Vietnamese literature, Li, Wai-yee; Denecke, Wiebke; Tian, Xiaofen (編), The Oxford Handbook of Classical Chinese Literature (1000 BCE-900 CE), Oxford: Oxford University Press: 568–578, 2017, ISBN 978-0-199-35659-1
- Li, Yu. The Chinese Writing System in Asia: An Interdisciplinary Perspective. Routledge. 2020. ISBN 978-1-00-069906-7.
外部連結
- 漢字 Hán tự: A Vietnamese-Chinese wordlist (via Wayback Machine)
- Từ điển Hán Việt Thiều Chửu (漢越辭典) (via Wayback Machine)
- Hán Việt Từ Điển Trích Dẫn (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館), Vietnamese Han character dictionary
- Thiều Chửu dictionary (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)
- Chữ viết tiếng Việt(包含尚未翻譯信息)
- https://www.britannica.com/art/Vietnamese-literature (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館)