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自我提升

維基百科,自由的百科全書

自我提升(英語:Self-enhancement)或稱自我膨脹自我拉抬是人的一種動機,有些人通過它使自己自我感覺良好和保持自尊[1],在受到威脅、遭遇失敗和自尊心被打擊時相對多見[2][3][4]。自我提升時,人們傾向於接受正面的自我概念[5]。自我提升使得人們改變控制自身行為的自律過程。它是四種自我評估動機之一,其他三種為自我評定(尋求準確自我概念的動機)、自我驗證(尋求與自我感覺一致的自我概念的動機)和自我改善(改良自我概念的行為)。

人們可以使用很多策略提升自己的個人價值感知,比如忽視自己不擅長的方面、通過比較並批評他人讓自己感覺更好。通過這些策略,人們趨向認為自己比別人優點更多,缺點更少[6]。自我提升的人群中既有高自尊心者也有低自尊心者,但各自使用的策略不同。高自尊心者會通過偏差地處理信息,直接提升自我概念;低自尊者通過更間接的策略,如避免暴露缺點的情況出現[7]

自我提升是否對個體有利的問題是有爭議的。

結果

自我提升策略的影響顯示在人們將自己視為比別人的優點更多,前途更光明[6]

自我提升三元素

人們通常對自己有着不切實際的個人價值感知,這些自我滿足的看法可以被歸為三類,稱之為正面錯覺三元素[8],他們是:超過平均效應[9]控制錯覺[10]不切實際的樂觀[11]。很多情境下,這三種錯覺都會出現,而且很難校正。諷刺的是,當被告知這些錯覺的存在時,人們普遍認為自己比別人出現得更少[12]

超過平均效應

優於常人效應是超過平均效應的最常見證明。此效應十分頑固,即使條件與其他被評價個體完全相同時,人們仍然會對自己作出更高的評價。[9]人們也會對與自己相關的事物給予更高的優越感,人們認為自己的親密朋友[13][14]和個人財產[15]高於其他人。然而當成果被認為是需要精湛技巧的,人們通常會謹慎而表現出劣於常人效應。例如,多數人會把自己騎獨輪車能力評為低於常人。

多數人超過平均在很多下是不可能的,比如在對稱分布情況下,此時 平均數 = 中位數 = 眾數 。[16]或者非對稱分布的情況下,此時平均數 < 中位數 < 眾數 或 眾數 < 中位數 < 平均數。然而在非對稱分布的情況下,如果把平均數或者眾數看作平均值,多數人超過平均則是可能的。

人們在很多方面上的自我提升的原因是超過平均效應。人們通常傾向於在有正面、合意的結果的事物中顯示出高於平均,在負面、不合意的事物中低於平均。

超過平均效應現象包括:

  • 多數大學生認為自己的禮儀、運動技能和領導力是前50%卓越的。[17][18][19]
  • 語法和邏輯領域的12%優秀者也會認為自己的水平是前62%。[20]
  • 94%的大學教授認為自己的教學能力高於平均水平。[21]
  • 英國和美國的大學生認為自己的駕駛能力高於平均水平駕駛員。[22]即使是因造成車禍住院的駕駛員,也認為自己不比普通駕駛員差。[23]
  • 即使在被告知優於常人效應後,人們也認為自己受此偏差之影響少於他人。[24]

控制錯覺

人們會高估自己控制結果和偶然的能力[25] ,實際無關時認為自己的行為是有影響的[26]。人們也相信他們可以影響本身隨機的系統,如彩票,尤其是對於與技巧相關的任務。儘管偶然性一定程度上存在於行為和結果中,但它被人們高估了[26]

不切實際的樂觀

人們通常相信自己將經歷的好事比同類人多,壞事比同齡人少。[11][27][28]人們對於像戀人、好朋友一樣的同伴也會有不切實際的樂觀,但是程度小些。[29]

不切實際的樂觀明顯出現在人們多種情境下的行為和看法中。人們會高估自己預測未來的能力[30]以及低估自己完成任務的所需時間[31]。人們高估自己社會預測的準確度[32],並將個人正面結果解讀為價值更高,負面結果解讀為價值更低[33]。令人擔心的是,吸煙者會低估自己相對於不吸煙的癌症風險,甚至會與同類吸煙者比較[34]

對個體的利弊

自我提升是否有利於個體的適應度是存在爭議的。[35][36]多種動機可以影響自我提升的出現,因此既有好處,又有壞處。[37]對自己表現評估出錯的人(同時包括自我提升者和自我低估者)易於獲得較低的學習成績,其他表現也更差。各種文化中,似乎都會出現此種現象。[38]

  • 如果將「自我提升」理解為「對自己的評價比對別人的評價高」,那麼結果經常是好的。[39][40]
  • 如果將「自我提升」理解為「自己對自己 比別人對自己的評價高」,那麼結果經常是不好的。[41][42]

兩種定義中使用哪種是有爭議的。有的研究者人為前一種不算自我提升。[43]

一些研究顯示,自我提升與心理水平良好有強烈關係[44],另一些研究恰恰相反,說與心理水平糟糕有關[41]。 自我提升也有社會代價。對九一一恐怖襲擊倖存者的治療中發現,自我提升者的朋友和家人把他們的社會適應度和誠實評為降低。[45]

反推之為何有倖存者與恐怖襲擊?人類,一種米養百種人,一頁一頁寫成歷史成了忠字。

參考資料

參考

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來源

延伸閱讀

  • Edward Chin-Ho Chang: Self-Criticism and Self-Enhancement. American Psychological Association, 2008 ISBN 978-1-4338-0115-0
  • Hogg, Michael A.; Cooper, Joel, The Sage Handbook of Social Psychology, Sage, 2003, ISBN 978-0-7619-6636-4 
  • Mark R Leary & June Price Tangney: Handbook of Self and Identity. Guilford Press, 2005 ISBN 978-1-59385-237-5

外部連結