停乳鏈球菌
停乳鏈球菌![]() | |
---|---|
![]() | |
停乳鏈球菌,哥倫比亞馬血瓊脂上的β溶血性G組鏈球菌 | |
科學分類 ![]() | |
域: | 細菌域 Bacteria |
界: | 細菌界 Bacteria |
門: | 芽孢桿菌門 Bacillota |
綱: | 芽孢桿菌綱 Bacilli |
目: | 乳桿菌目 Lactobacillales |
科: | 鏈球菌科 Streptococcaceae |
屬: | 鏈球菌屬 Streptococcus |
種: | 停乳鏈球菌 S. dysgalactiae
|
二名法 | |
Streptococcus dysgalactiae (ex Diernhofer 1932) Garvie et al. 1983[1]
| |
模式菌株 | |
ATCC 43078[1] CCUG 27301 CIP 102914 DSM 20662 LMG 15885 LMG 16023 NCDO 2023 NCFB 2023 NCIMB 702023 |
停乳鏈球菌(學名:Streptococcus dysgalactiae)是鏈球菌屬中的一種革蘭氏陽性菌,也是一種β溶血性球菌。停乳鏈球菌能夠感染人類和動物,但大多數情況下它會與消化道和生殖系統作為偏利共生關係共存,而少數情況下會作為皮膚菌群的一部分。人類疾病的臨床表現範圍從較淺的皮膚感染和扁桃體炎,到嚴重的壞死性筋膜炎和菌血症。[2]據報導,侵襲性疾病的發病率正在上升。[3][4]有好幾種不同的動物物種容易受停乳鏈球菌感染,但綿羊(關節病)中的牛乳腺炎和敗血性關節炎是最常被報導的。[5][6]
停乳鏈球菌目前分為停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種(Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis(SDSE))和停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種(Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies dysgalactiae(SDSD))這兩個亞種,前者主要與人類疾病有關,而後者幾乎只在獸醫學中遇到。[7]然而,它們的確切生物分類是一個仍在爭論的問題。
名稱來源
停乳鏈球菌這個名字來源於希臘語。Streptococcus的意思是鏈狀的(Streptos)圓形漿果狀的體身體(kokkos),指的是它們在光學顯微鏡下的外觀。Dys(壞)galactiae(奶)暗示了它們會引起牛乳腺炎。而從Equi(馬)similis(像)則可以推測出與之密切相關的物種馬鏈球菌(馬腺疫)的相似性。
流行病學
停乳鏈球菌長期以來被認為對人類沒有致病性。然而,根據記錄,停乳鏈球菌感染的發病率越來越高,並且在某些地理區域,停乳鏈球菌的侵襲性感染率甚至超過了化膿性鏈球菌。[3][4][8][9]侵襲性病例的年齡分布明顯偏向於老年人,而健康的攜帶者似乎與年齡成反比。患有慢性疾病(包括癌症和糖尿病)的人也特別容易受到停乳鏈球菌感染。[10]這些機會性特徵已經被提議作為觀察到的侵襲性疾病頻率增加的機制之一。此外,已經注意到發病率以男性為主,可能是由於合併症的負擔較高。非侵入性疾病的發病率似乎沒有增加。
在人類疾病中的位置
停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種是人類的消化道和生殖系統的共生菌。有時候它會從皮膚中分離出來,但它通常與慢性皮膚病或上皮組織屏障的某些破壞有關。[11]
非侵襲性疾病的表現主要包括較淺的皮膚感染和扁桃體炎。此外,長期以來它一直被認為是蜂窩組織炎和丹毒的潛在原因。然而,在最近的一項研究中,停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種在蜂窩織炎中的作用可能被低估了,並且它與大多數蜂窩織炎病例都有關。
侵襲性疾病的臨床表現也以皮膚和軟組織感染為主,包括一小部分患有嚴重壞死性筋膜炎的患者。除此之外,它是骨頭和關節感染的重要原因,據報導,這種疾病的表現正在增加。[12]較少見的是它可以表現為肺炎、心內膜炎、生殖器或腹腔內感染。原發性菌血症,即沒有明確記錄感染源的菌血症感染者,約占報導病例的20%。[13]
最近,停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種已經與急性增生性腎小球腎炎和急性風濕熱有關聯。[14][15]這些免疫後遺症以前只與化膿性鏈球菌有關聯。停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種幾乎完全是一種動物病原體。然而,已經有一些關於人畜共患感染的可疑報告。[16][17]
在動物疾病中的位置
停乳鏈球菌可以感染一系列動物宿主,它的兩個亞種都很重要。然而,這種細菌經常定殖在健康動物的體內,特別是在消化道和生殖器區域。
在獸醫學中,它是公認的牛乳腺炎的病因,因此得名dys-galactiae(泌乳障礙)。在一些地理區域,據報導它只是僅次於金黃色葡萄球菌作為引起臨床和亞臨床乳腺炎的病因。停乳鏈球菌尤其是與夏季發生的乳腺炎(夏季乳腺炎)有關,並且已經發現它是通過飛蟲傳播的。[18]其他動物的乳腺炎也有記錄與停乳鏈球菌有關。[19]
停乳鏈球菌已從幾種動物物種的傳染性多關節炎中分離出來,包括豬、綿羊、牛和山羊。[20]此外,它與幼犬的新生兒死亡率有關。[21]最近,停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種已被描述為魚類中的一種新興病原體,可導致尾柄暴發性壞死性潰瘍,從而導致死亡率提高。[22]臨床表現以嚴重的敗血症和微膿腫的形成為主,並且已經得知疾病的嚴重程度與毒力因子鏈球菌溶血素S(SLS)和SPEGdys的表達之間存在關係。
治療和抗微生物藥物敏感性
青黴素是治療鏈球菌感染的首選藥物,並且從未報導過停乳鏈球菌菌株會降低對青黴素的敏感性。根據臨床診斷,治療持續時間為5天到3個月不等。二線藥物包括大環內酯類藥物和克林黴素,儘管在一些區域已經記錄了由於外排和保護機制而增加的抗藥性。[23][24]由於缺乏呼吸代謝,氨基糖苷類抗生素對鏈球菌沒有活性。然而,當與β內酰胺類抗生素聯合使用時,氨基糖苷類抗生素似乎對鏈球菌產生了協同作用。[25]停乳鏈球菌對糖肽類抗生素和2-噁唑烷酮均敏感。
分類學
Diernhofer於1932年首次使用停乳鏈球菌這個名稱,描述了一種源自獸醫學的鏈球菌。[26]隨後,Frost在1936年報導了人類病原體——馬鏈球菌的發現。[27]然而,與此同時,瑞貝卡·蘭斯菲爾德根據鏈球菌的碳水化合物抗原設計了鏈球菌的分類,並相繼標出了屬於C組(1933年)和G組(1935年)的鏈球菌。[28][29]然而,並沒有詳細探討過碳水化合物的特異性與停乳鏈球菌和馬鏈球菌這兩種物種的相關性。蘭斯菲爾德分類法很快成為首選的鑑定鏈球菌的方法,之後停乳鏈球菌和馬鏈球菌的名稱便被廢棄了。1980年,它們甚至被批准的細菌物種名單中刪除了。[30]然而三年後,DNA分子雜交研究揭示了停乳鏈球菌、馬鏈球菌、來源於人類的大菌落形成C組和G組鏈球菌以及來源於某些動物的大菌落形成C組、G組和L組鏈球菌之間的廣泛相似性。[31][32]因此,它們被融合到一個物種——停乳鏈球菌。然而,隨後的分子研究表明這個新物種內的異質性,並在1996年將其分為停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種和停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種。[33]
停乳鏈球菌的分類學劃分為兩個亞種一直是許多混亂的根源,也是一個持續爭論的問題。儘管不存在官方的黃金分類標準,但在1998年,Vieira et al發布了最新且得到廣泛支持的定義。它將停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種定義為含有蘭斯菲爾德C組抗原的α溶血表型。其餘的被歸類為停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種(大部分)是β溶血性的,並且可以攜帶 蘭斯菲爾德A、C、G或L組的碳水化合物抗原。然而,最近的一項研究表明,來源於動物和人類的停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種的菌株在遺傳上是不同的,未來的分類學重新分類是可以想象的。[34]
實驗室鑑定
停乳鏈球菌在培養24小時後形成大菌落(>0.5cm),並在血瓊脂上產生溶血性。停乳鏈球菌停乳亞種是α溶血性,而停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種主要是β溶血性的。它們是兼性厭氧的,不能進行呼吸代謝,但是耐氧。在5%二氧化碳的環境中培養可促進生長,但它們通常在環境空氣中充分生長。生長的最佳溫度約為37攝氏度。然而,上述特徵並非停乳鏈球菌所獨有,需要進一步測試以確認物種身份。儘管目前許多實驗室通過質譜法(基質輔助激光解吸/電離(MALDI))鑑定細菌,但表型檢測仍被廣泛使用。與化膿性鏈球菌(含有蘭斯菲爾德A組抗原)不同,停乳鏈球菌是PYR陰性和桿菌肽抗性的。可通過菌落大小和VP試驗把心絞痛鏈球菌群(蘭斯菲爾德A、C、G 或 F)進行區分;心絞痛鏈球菌組是VP陽性。馬鏈球菌含有蘭斯菲爾德組C,犬鏈球菌含有G組,但與停乳鏈球菌不同的是,它們都是透明質酸酶陰性的。[34]
停乳鏈球菌亞種水平的鑑定是通過最可靠的多位點序列分型進行[35]MALDI目前並不具備超出物種水平的分類分辨率。
分子分型
已經使用了幾種不同的斷乳鏈球菌分型系統,其中大多數最初是為化膿性鏈球菌而設計的。最廣泛使用的方法是emm分型。Emm基因編碼M蛋白,它是化膿性鏈球菌和停乳鏈球菌中的主要毒力因子。它在起源於人類的停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種中普遍存在,他在5'末端區域的高變異性構成了分類為不同的emm類型的基礎。[36] 迄今為止,已經確定了超過100種停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種的emm分型(CDC Strep Lab (頁面存檔備份,存於網際網路檔案館))。流行的emm分型在不同的地理區域會有所不同,並且克隆性爆發已經被確定。[37] 與化膿性鏈球菌不同,對於停乳鏈球菌,emm分型與疾病表現或嚴重程度之間的相關性尚未確定。[38]脈衝場凝膠電泳歷來被用於探索停乳鏈球菌之間的克隆關係,但隨着測序的可用性增加和成本的降低,它很可能被多位點序列分型和單核苷酸多態性分析所取代。
發病機制和毒力因子
停乳鏈球菌的致病途徑尚未被詳細探討過。已經確定了幾種毒力因子,但主要是通過篩選停乳鏈球菌分離出充分表徵的化膿性鏈球菌毒力基因的同源物。在對216個化膿性鏈球菌毒力基因的研究中,發現停乳鏈球菌占了其中的一大半。[39]事實上,全基因組比較揭示了兩個物種之間70%的遺傳相似性,這表明了它們有共同的遺傳祖先。[40] 然而,也找到了基因水平轉移遺傳的證據。[41]
感染後發病機制的第一個關鍵步驟是附着在宿主組織上。M蛋白是研究最廣泛的停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種的毒力因子,它已被證明可以促進宿主細胞的粘附和內化。[42][43]還描述了其他粘附素,包括基因gfba、fnB、fbBA、fnBB、lmb和gapC;所有中介都與纖連蛋白綁定。[44][45][46][47]最近顯示gfba有助於細菌內化到內皮細胞和細胞內持久性。[48][49]這些特性可以解釋在人類病例中觀察到的由停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種引起的反覆性菌血症的趨勢。
為了建立感染,細菌需要逃避宿主的免疫反應,在鏈球菌中,已經發現了多種細菌策略。M蛋白通過抑制吞噬作用和使補體系統失去活性來幫助免疫逃避。此外,停乳鏈球菌擁有蛋白G,這是一種結合免疫球蛋白的毒力因子,因此會干擾宿主抗體反應。[50]DrsG是一種消除人類免疫細胞分泌的抗微生物肽作用的毒力蛋白,它也存在於停乳鏈球菌似馬亞種的一部分菌株中。[51][52]
已在停乳鏈球菌中鑑定出幾種毒素和分泌酶,包括溶血素鏈球菌溶血素O(SLO)和鏈球菌溶血素S(SLS),並推斷出SLO和SLS的效應與疾病的嚴重程度之間存在相關性。[53]speGdys是化膿性鏈球菌超抗原speG的同源物,已在一些停乳鏈球菌菌株中得到證實。[38][54]然而,它似乎只在動物中具有超抗原能力,它與人類疾病的相關性尚未確定。[55]鏈激酶似乎在停乳鏈球菌中普遍存在,能夠促進纖維蛋白溶解並幫助細菌在組織中擴散。[42][39]
最近,已確認了形成生物薄膜的能力,促進了在惡劣環境中的生存和增殖。[56]儘管這可能對停乳鏈球菌感染的治療產生影響,但其臨床意義尚未確定。
參考文獻
- ^ 1.0 1.1 Species: Streptococcus dysgalactiae. lpsn.dsmz.de. [2023-04-27]. (原始內容存檔於2023-04-27) (英語).
- ^ Brandt, CM, Spellerberg, B. Human Infections Due to Streptococcus dysgalactiae Subspecies equisimilis. academic.oup.com. 2009-09-01 [2022-09-12]. doi:10.1086/605085. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-12) –透過PMID 19635028.
- ^ 3.0 3.1 Oppegaard, O.; Mylvaganam, H.; Kittang, B. R. Beta-haemolytic group A, C and G streptococcal infections in Western Norway: a 15-year retrospective survey. Clinical Microbiology and Infection. 2015-02-01, 21 (2). ISSN 1198-743X. PMID 25658557. doi:10.1016/j.cmi.2014.08.019 (英語).
- ^ 4.0 4.1 Sylvetsky, Noa; Raveh, David; Schlesinger, Yechiel; Rudensky, Bernard; Yinnon, Amos M. Bacteremia due to beta-hemolytic streptococcus group g: increasing incidence and clinical characteristics of patients. The American Journal of Medicine. 2002-06-01, 112 (8). ISSN 0002-9343. doi:10.1016/S0002-9343(02)01117-8 (英語).
- ^ Whist, A. C.; Østerås, O.; Sølverød, L. Streptococcus dysgalactiae Isolates at Calving and Lactation Performance Within the Same Lactation. Journal of Dairy Science. 2007-02-01, 90 (2). ISSN 0022-0302. PMID 17235154. doi:10.3168/jds.S0022-0302(07)71561-8 (英語).
- ^ Rutherford, S. J.; Rycroft, A. N.; Ridler, A. L. Sources of Streptococcus dysgalactiae in English and Welsh sheep flocks affected by infectious arthritis (joint ill). Veterinary Record. 2014-06, 174 (23). doi:10.1136/vr.101753 (英語).
- ^ VIEIRA, VERÔNICA V.; TEIXEIRA, LÚCIA M.; ZAHNER, VIVIANE; MOMEN, HOOMAN; FACKLAM, RICHARD R.; STEIGERWALT, ARNOLD G.; BRENNER, DON J.; CASTRO, ANGELA C. D.YR 1998. Genetic relationships among the different phenotypes of Streptococcus dysgalactiae strains. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. [2022-09-12]. ISSN 1466-5034. doi:10.1099/00207713-48-4-1231. (原始內容存檔於2023-02-20).
- ^ Bramhachari, Pallaval V.; Kaul, Santosh Y.; McMillan, David J.; Shaila, Melkote S.; Karmarkar, Mohan G.; Sriprakash, Kadaba S.YR 2010. Disease burden due to Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis (group G and C streptococcus) is higher than that due to Streptococcuspyogenes among Mumbai school children. Journal of Medical Microbiology. [2022-09-13]. ISSN 1473-5644. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.015644-0. (原始內容存檔於2023-02-20).
- ^ Wong, San S.; Lin, Yu S.; Mathew, Liby; Rajagopal, Latha; Sepkowitz, Douglas. Increase in Group G Streptococcal Infections in a Community Hospital, New York, USA. Emerging Infectious Diseases. 2009-6, 15 (6) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 1080-6040. PMC 2727315
. PMID 19523319. doi:10.3201/eid1506.080666. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Population-Based Study of Invasive Disease Due to β-Hemolytic Streptococci of Groups Other than A and B. academic.oup.com. 2009-03-15 [2022-09-13]. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Bruun, Trond; Oppegaard, Oddvar; Kittang, Bård R.; Mylvaganam, Haima; Langeland, Nina; Skrede, Steinar. Etiology of Cellulitis and Clinical Prediction of Streptococcal Disease: A Prospective Study. Open Forum Infectious Diseases. 2015-11-25, 3 (1) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 2328-8957. PMC 4699398
. PMID 26734653. doi:10.1093/ofid/ofv181. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Oppegaard, Oddvar; Skrede, Steinar; Mylvaganam, Haima; Kittang, Bård Reiakvam. Temporal trends of β-haemolytic streptococcal osteoarticular infections in western Norway. BMC Infectious Diseases. 2016-10-04, 16 [2022-09-13]. ISSN 1471-2334. PMC 5050853
. PMID 27716100. doi:10.1186/s12879-016-1874-7. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Loubinoux, Julien; Plainvert, Céline; Collobert, Gislène; Touak, Gérald; Bouvet, Anne; Poyart, Claire. Adult Invasive and Noninvasive Infections Due to Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis in France from 2006 to 2010. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2013-8, 51 (8) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 3719644
. PMID 23698531. doi:10.1128/JCM.01262-13. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Haidan, Andrea; Talay, Susanne R.; Rohde, Manfred; Sriprakash, Kadaba S.; Currie, Bart J.; Chhatwal, Gursharan S. Pharyngeal carriage of group C and group G streptococci and acute rheumatic fever in an Aboriginal population. The Lancet. 2000-09-30, 356 (9236) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0140-6736. PMID 11030302. doi:10.1016/S0140-6736(00)02765-3. (原始內容存檔於2011-03-23) (英語).
- ^ Reid, H. F.; Bassett, D. C.; Poon-King, T.; Zabriskie, J. B.; Read, S. E. Group G streptococci in healthy school-children and in patients with glomerulonephritis in Trinidad.. The Journal of Hygiene. 1985-02, 94 (1) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0022-1724. PMC 2129394
. PMID 3882827. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Jordal, Stina; Glambek, Marte; Oppegaard, Oddvar; Kittang, Bård Reiakvam. New Tricks from an Old Cow: Infective Endocarditis Caused by Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2015-2, 53 (2) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 4298539
. PMID 25472489. doi:10.1128/JCM.02437-14. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Koh, T. H.; Sng, L.-H.; Yuen, S. M.; Thomas, C. K.; Tan, P. L.; Tan, S. H.; Wong, N. S. Streptococcal Cellulitis Following Preparation of Fresh Raw Seafood. Zoonoses and Public Health. 2009-05, 56 (4) [2022-09-13]. doi:10.1111/j.1863-2378.2008.01213.x. (原始內容存檔於2023-02-20) (英語).
- ^ Chirico, Jan; Jonsson, Per; Kjellberg, Suzanne; Thomas, Gethin. Summer mastitis experimentally induced by Hydrotaea irritans exposed to bacteria. Medical and Veterinary Entomology. 1997-04, 11 (2) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0269-283X. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2915.1997.tb00312.x. (原始內容存檔於2021-07-11) (英語).
- ^ Scott, P. R. Extensive fibrinous pleurisy associated with Streptococcus dysgalactiae mastitis in two ewes. Veterinary Record. 2000-03, 146 (12). doi:10.1136/vr.146.12.347 (英語).
- ^ Abdelsalam, M.; Eissa, A.E.; Chen, S.-C. Genetic diversity of geographically distinct Streptococcus dysgalactiae isolates from fish. Journal of Advanced Research. 2015-3, 6 (2) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 2090-1232. PMC 4348444
. PMID 25750757. doi:10.1016/j.jare.2013.12.003. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Vela, Ana I.; Falsen, Enevold; Simarro, Isabel; Rollan, Eduardo; Collins, Matthew D.; Domínguez, Lucas; Fernandez-Garayzabal, Jose F. Neonatal Mortality in Puppies Due to Bacteremia by Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. dysgalactiae. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2006-2, 44 (2) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 1392640
. PMID 16455943. doi:10.1128/JCM.44.2.666-668.2006. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-13).
- ^ Nomoto, R; Munasinghe, L I; Jin, D-H; Shimahara, Y; Yasuda, H; Nakamura, A; Misawa, N; Itami, T; Yoshida, T. Lancefield group C Streptococcus dysgalactiae infection responsible for fish mortalities in Japan. Journal of Fish Diseases. 2004-12, 27 (12) [2022-09-13]. ISSN 0140-7775. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2761.2004.00591.x. (原始內容存檔於2023-02-20) (英語).
- ^ Lo, Hsueh-Hsia; Nien, Hao-Hsiang; Cheng, Ya-Yu; Su, Fang-Yi. Antibiotic susceptibility pattern and erythromycin resistance mechanisms in beta-hemolytic group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis isolates from central Taiwan. Journal of Microbiology, Immunology and Infection. 2015-12-01, 48 (6) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 1684-1182. doi:10.1016/j.jmii.2014.04.003. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14) (英語).
- ^ de Souza, José Paulo; Santos, Amanda Ribeiro; de Paula, Geraldo Renato; Barros, Rosana Rocha. Antimicrobial susceptibility and genetic relationships among Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis isolates in Rio de Janeiro. Infectious Diseases. 2016-09-01, 48 (9). ISSN 2374-4235. PMID 27301015. doi:10.1080/23744235.2016.1192680.
- ^ Baker, C N; Thornsberry, C; Facklam, R R. Synergism, killing kinetics, and antimicrobial susceptibility of group A and B streptococci.. Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy. 1981-05, 19 (5) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 0066-4804. PMID 7027921. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14).
- ^ Abdelsalam, Mohamed; Asheg, Abdellatif; Eissa, Alaa Eldin. Streptococcus dysgalactiae: An emerging pathogen of fishes and mammals. International Journal of Veterinary Science and Medicine. 2013-06-01, 1 (1) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 2314-4599. doi:10.1016/j.ijvsm.2013.04.002. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14) (英語).
- ^ Woo, Patrick C. Y.; Teng, Jade L. L.; Lau, Susanna K. P.; Lum, Peggy N. L.; Leung, Kit-Wah; Wong, Kee-Lam; Li, Kin-Wah; Lam, Kui-Chun; Yuen, Kwok-Yung. Analysis of a Viridans Group Strain Reveals a Case of Bacteremia Due to Lancefield Group G Alpha-Hemolytic Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis in a Patient with Pyomyositis and Reactive Arthritis. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2003-2, 41 (2) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 0095-1137. PMID 12574255. doi:10.1128/JCM.41.2.613-618.2003. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14).
- ^ Lancefield, Rebecca C. A SEROLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF HUMAN AND OTHER GROUPS OF HEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCI. The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 1933-03-31, 57 (4) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 0022-1007. PMC 2132252
. PMID 19870148. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-08).
- ^ Lancefield, Rebecca C.; Hare, Ronald. THE SEROLOGICAL DIFFERENTIATION OF PATHOGENIC AND NON-PATHOGENIC STRAINS OF HEMOLYTIC STREPTOCOCCI FROM PARTURIENT WOMEN. The Journal of Experimental Medicine. 1935-02-28, 61 (3) [2022-09-14]. ISSN 0022-1007. PMC 2133228
. PMID 19870362. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14).
- ^ Skerman, V. B. D.; McGOWAN, Vicki.; Sneath, P. H. A.YR 1980. Approved Lists of Bacterial Names. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. [2022-09-14]. ISSN 1466-5034. doi:10.1099/00207713-30-1-225. (原始內容存檔於2022-10-21).
- ^ GARVIE, ELLEN I.; FARROW, J. A. E.; BRAMLEY, A. J.YR 1983. Streptococcus dysgalactiae (Diernhofer) nom. rev.. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. [2022-09-14]. ISSN 1466-5034. doi:10.1099/00207713-33-2-404. (原始內容存檔於2022-12-10).
- ^ Farrow, J. A. E.; Collins, M. D. Taxonomic Studies on Streptococci of Serological Groups C, G and L and Possibly Related Taxa. Systematic and Applied Microbiology. 1984-12-01, 5 (4). ISSN 0723-2020. doi:10.1016/S0723-2020(84)80005-3 (英語).
- ^ VANDAMME, P.; POT, B.; FALSEN, E.; KERSTERS, K.; DEVRIESE, L. A.YR 1996. Taxonomic Study of Lancefield Streptococcal Groups C, G, and L (Streptococcus dysgalactiae) and Proposal of S. dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis subsp. nov.. International Journal of Systematic and Evolutionary Microbiology. [2022-09-14]. ISSN 1466-5034. doi:10.1099/00207713-46-3-774. (原始內容存檔於2022-09-14).
- ^ 34.0 34.1 Jensen, Anders; Kilian, Mogens. Delineation of Streptococcus dysgalactiae, its subspecies, and its clinical and phylogenetic relationship to Streptococcus pyogenes. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 2012-01-01, 50 (1): 113–126. ISSN 1098-660X. PMC 3256718
. PMID 22075580. doi:10.1128/JCM.05900-11.
- ^ Bishop, Cynthia J.; Aanensen, David M.; Jordan, Gregory E.; Kilian, Mogens; Hanage, William P.; Spratt, Brian G. Assigning strains to bacterial species via the internet. BMC Biology. 2009-01-01, 7: 3. ISSN 1741-7007. PMC 2636762
. PMID 19171050. doi:10.1186/1741-7007-7-3.
- ^ Beall, B.; Facklam, R.; Thompson, T. Sequencing emm-specific PCR products for routine and accurate typing of group A streptococci. Journal of Clinical Microbiology. 1996-04-01, 34 (4): 953–958. ISSN 0095-1137. PMC 228924
. PMID 8815115. doi:10.1128/JCM.34.4.953-958.1996.
- ^ Wang, Xiaohui; Zhang, Xiaoxia; Zong, Zhiyong. Genome sequence and virulence factors of a group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis strain with a new element carrying erm(B). Scientific Reports. 2016-01-01, 6: 20389. Bibcode:2016NatSR...620389W. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 4740735
. PMID 26843282. doi:10.1038/srep20389.
- ^ 38.0 38.1 Kittang, B. R.; Skrede, S.; Langeland, N.; Haanshuus, C. G.; Mylvaganam, H. emm gene diversity, superantigen gene profiles and presence of SlaA among clinical isolates of group A, C and G streptococci from western Norway. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 2011-03-01, 30 (3): 423–433. ISSN 1435-4373. PMC 3034890
. PMID 21103900. doi:10.1007/s10096-010-1105-x.
- ^ 39.0 39.1 Davies, Mark R.; McMillan, David J.; Beiko, Robert G.; Barroso, Vanessa; Geffers, Robert; Sriprakash, Kadaba S.; Chhatwal, Gursharan S. Virulence profiling of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis isolated from infected humans reveals 2 distinct genetic lineages that do not segregate with their phenotypes or propensity to cause diseases. Clinical Infectious Diseases. 2007-06-01, 44 (11): 1442–1454. ISSN 1537-6591. PMID 17479940. doi:10.1086/516780
.
- ^ Shimomura, Yumi; Okumura, Kayo; Murayama, Somay Yamagata; Yagi, Junji; Ubukata, Kimiko; Kirikae, Teruo; Miyoshi-Akiyama, Tohru. Complete genome sequencing and analysis of a Lancefield group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis strain causing streptococcal toxic shock syndrome (STSS). BMC Genomics. 2011-01-01, 12: 17. ISSN 1471-2164. PMC 3027156
. PMID 21223537. doi:10.1186/1471-2164-12-17.
- ^ McNeilly, Celia L.; McMillan, David J. Horizontal gene transfer and recombination in Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis. Frontiers in Microbiology. 2014-01-01, 5: 676. ISSN 1664-302X. PMC 4266089
. PMID 25566202. doi:10.3389/fmicb.2014.00676
.
- ^ 42.0 42.1 引用錯誤:沒有為名為
Brandt2009
的參考文獻提供內容 - ^ Bisno, A. L.; Craven, D. E.; McCabe, W. R. M proteins of group G streptococci isolated from bacteremic human infections. Infection and Immunity. 1987-03-01, 55 (3): 753–757. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 260406
. PMID 3102380. doi:10.1128/IAI.55.3.753-757.1987.
- ^ Kline, J. B.; Xu, S.; Bisno, A. L.; Collins, C. M. Identification of a fibronectin-binding protein (GfbA) in pathogenic group G streptococci. Infection and Immunity. 1996-06-01, 64 (6): 2122–2129. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 174045
. PMID 8675316. doi:10.1128/IAI.64.6.2122-2129.1996.
- ^ Lindgren, P. E.; McGavin, M. J.; Signäs, C.; Guss, B.; Gurusiddappa, S.; Höök, M.; Lindberg, M. Two different genes coding for fibronectin-binding proteins from Streptococcus dysgalactiae. The complete nucleotide sequences and characterization of the binding domains. European Journal of Biochemistry. 1993-06-15, 214 (3): 819–827. ISSN 0014-2956. PMID 8319691. doi:10.1111/j.1432-1033.1993.tb17985.x
.
- ^ Lindgren, P. E.; Signäs, C.; Rantamäki, L.; Lindberg, M. A fibronectin-binding protein from Streptococcus equisimilis: characterization of the gene and identification of the binding domain. Veterinary Microbiology. 1994-08-01, 41 (3): 235–247. ISSN 0378-1135. PMID 7975149. doi:10.1016/0378-1135(94)90104-x.
- ^ Lo, Hsueh-Hsia; Cheng, Wei-Shan. Distribution of virulence factors and association with emm polymorphism or isolation site among beta-hemolytic group G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis. APMIS. 2015-01-01, 123 (1): 45–52. ISSN 1600-0463. PMID 25244428. S2CID 22317951. doi:10.1111/apm.12305.
- ^ Rohde, Manfred; Talay, Susanne R.; Rasmussen, Magnus. Molecular mechanisms of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp equisimilis enabling intravascular persistence. Microbes and Infection / Institut Pasteur. 2012-04-01, 14 (4): 329–334. ISSN 1769-714X. PMID 22100875. doi:10.1016/j.micinf.2011.10.008.
- ^ Gherardi, Giovanni; Imperi, Monica; Palmieri, Claudio; Magi, Gloria; Facinelli, Bruna; Baldassarri, Lucilla; Pataracchia, Marco; Creti, Roberta. Genetic diversity and virulence properties of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis from different sources. Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2014-01-01, 63 (Pt 1): 90–98. ISSN 1473-5644. PMID 24149625. doi:10.1099/jmm.0.062109-0.
- ^ Sjöbring, U.; Björck, L.; Kastern, W. Streptococcal protein G. Gene structure and protein binding properties. The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 1991-01-05, 266 (1): 399–405. ISSN 0021-9258. PMID 1985908. doi:10.1016/S0021-9258(18)52448-0
.
- ^ Smyth, Danielle; Cameron, Ainslie; Davies, Mark R.; McNeilly, Celia; Hafner, Louise; Sriprakash, Kadaba S.; McMillan, David J. DrsG from Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis inhibits the antimicrobial peptide LL-37. Infection and Immunity. 2014-06-01, 82 (6): 2337–2344. ISSN 1098-5522. PMC 4019180
. PMID 24664506. doi:10.1128/IAI.01411-13.
- ^ Oppegaard, O.; Mylvaganam, H.; Skrede, S.; Langeland, N.; Kittang, B. R. Sequence diversity of sicG among group C and G Streptococcus dysgalactiae subspecies equisimilis isolates associated with human infections in western Norway. European Journal of Clinical Microbiology & Infectious Diseases. 2014-02-01, 33 (2): 273–277. ISSN 1435-4373. PMID 24019161. S2CID 15784916. doi:10.1007/s10096-013-1955-0.
- ^ Watanabe, Shinya; Shimomura, Yumi; Ubukata, Kimiko; Kirikae, Teruo; Miyoshi-Akiyama, Tohru. Concomitant regulation of host tissue-destroying virulence factors and carbohydrate metabolism during invasive diseases induced by group g streptococci. The Journal of Infectious Diseases. 2013-11-01, 208 (9): 1482–1493. ISSN 1537-6613. PMID 23901096. doi:10.1093/infdis/jit353
.
- ^ Sachse, Svea; Seidel, Peter; Gerlach, Dieter; Günther, Elisabeth; Rödel, Jürgen; Straube, Eberhard; Schmidt, Karl-Hermann. Superantigen-like gene(s) in human pathogenic Streptococcus dysgalactiae, subsp equisimilis: genomic localisation of the gene encoding streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin G (speG(dys)). FEMS Immunology and Medical Microbiology. 2002-10-11, 34 (2): 159–167. ISSN 0928-8244. PMID 12381468. doi:10.1111/j.1574-695x.2002.tb00618.x
.
- ^ Zhao, Jizi; Hayashi, Tomohito; Saarinen, Susanna; Papageorgiou, Anastassios C.; Kato, Hidehito; Imanishi, Ken'ichi; Kirikae, Teruo; Abe, Ryo; Uchiyama, Takehiko. Cloning, expression, and characterization of the superantigen streptococcal pyrogenic exotoxin G from Streptococcus dysgalactiae. Infection and Immunity. 2007-04-01, 75 (4): 1721–1729. ISSN 0019-9567. PMC 1865666
. PMID 17283088. doi:10.1128/IAI.01183-06.
- ^ Genteluci, Gabrielle Limeira; Silva, Ligia Guedes; Souza, Maria Clara; Glatthardt, Thaís; de Mattos, Marcos Corrêa; Ejzemberg, Regina; Alviano, Celuta Sales; Figueiredo, Agnes Marie Sá; Ferreira-Carvalho, Bernadete Teixeira. Assessment and characterization of biofilm formation among human isolates of Streptococcus dysgalactiae subsp. equisimilis. International Journal of Medical Microbiology. 2015-12-01, 305 (8): 937–947. ISSN 1618-0607. PMID 26558847. doi:10.1016/j.ijmm.2015.10.004.
外部連結
|